2022年最新语言学-知识点总结 .docx

精品文档Unit 1一： .Important distinction in linguistics 1:prescriptive and descriptive 规范性和描述性）If the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use , it is said tobe descriptive.be in or actuallyIf the linguistic study aimsto lay down rules for“ correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.should be2:synchronic and diachronic 共识的和历时的）synchronic is the description of a language at some point of time in history. diachronic is the description of language as it changes through time.3. speech and writingModern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons.4. langue and parole 语言和言语）Langue refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.5. Competence and performance（语言的才能和表现）competence is the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language ;performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.6. traditional grammar and modern linguistics 传统语法和现代语言学） 二.Design features of languagearbitrariness 任意性）： it means there is no logical connection between meaning and sounds.productivity （生产性） :language is productiveor creative in that itmakes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.duality （双重性）： language is a system,which consists of two sets of structure of levels.displacement 替代性） ： language can be used to refersto contexts removed fromthe immediate situations of the speaker.精品文档cultural transmission（文化传递 : it is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning.Unit 2 （重点）一： the speech organslips,teeth,teethridge,hardpalate,softpalate,uvula,tipoftongue,bladeoftongue,backof tonguemost flexible,vocal cords,pharyngeal cavity,nasal cavity二.phone, phoneme and allophone（音素,音位和音位变体）Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme is a phonological unit;it is a unit that is of distinctive value, and it is a abstract unit.抽象的概念Allophones is different phones represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments .三.phonemic contrast ,complementary distribution and minimal pair 音位的对立, 互补的分布, 最小对位）If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.If they are allophones of the same phoneme,they do not distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same position in the strings,the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.3.Morphology 形状学Morpheme: the smallest unit of language that carriers information about meaning or function.Morph:when people wish to distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morpheme, they may use the term morphFree morpheme:可单独存在有实际意义boy/readBound morpheme: 必需与其他连用-s.-er Derivational morpheme: 转变词意 n adjInflectional morpheme: 不转变词性 转变时态 -ed Compounds 合成词3.Syntax 句法Phrase structure rule:NP, VP, APadjective phrase, PPprepositional phraseXP rule :XP specifierXcomplementX represent the head N,V ,A,P and P represent complementPhrase elements:a. Specifiers-determiner, qualifier, degree wordsb. Complements-provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.c. Modifiers 修饰语5. Semantics 语义学 meaningThe naming theory命名论 proposed by Greek scholar Plato: the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for, but this theory seems applicable to nouns only and abstract notion, such as joy and impulse, can not be named.The conceptualist view 概念论 : linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind and can name the abstract notionsemantic triangle/ triangle of significance语意三角 suggested by Ogden and RichardsContextualism语 境 J.R.Firth:meaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use, context-elements closely linked with language behavior.Behaviorism 行为主义 by Bloomfield: situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.Lexical meaning 词汇意义 :a. Sense and referencesense 意义 : is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized可以脱离语境 ./reference 所指 : means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world;it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience 客观事实存在 b.major sense relations:synonymy 近义词 dialectal synonyms 方言同义词 -used in different regional dialects e.g.British Englishautumn&American Englishfall/stylistic synonyms 语言的文体同义词,正式程度不同 -differing in style e.g.dad, father/synonyms that differ in theiremotiveorevaluativemeaning情 感 态 度 不 同 e.g.collaborator,accomplice/collocational synonyms 搭配不同 e.g.accuse, accuse.of/semantically different synonyms 语义不同 e.g.amaze, astoundpolysemy 多义词 :have more than one meaninghomonymy 同音异义词hyponymy下 义 词 e.g. superordinate上 义 -generalmeaninganimal/hyponyms下 义-specific wordsdog, catantonymy 反义词 gradable antonyms 等级反义词 e.g.middle-aged, elderly/complementary antonyms 互补反义词 e.g.male,female/relational opposites 关系反义词 e.g.patient,doctor句与句之间的关系 :synonymous 同义 /inconsistent 自相冲突 /entails or entailment 上下义,一个句子意思包含另一个句子 /presupposes or prerequisite 预设前途 /contradiction 一句话前后自相冲突 /semantically anomalous 语义反常Analysis of meaning :ponential analysis 成分分析 a way to analyze lexical meaning:this approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. e.g.father=+human+adult+animate+male/b.predicationanalysis 述谓分析 a way to analyze sentence meaning:predicate 谓词+argument 论源 除动词以外的 6. Pragmatics 语用学Definition:it is a study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics VS.Semantics:difference-whether in the study of meaning the context of use is consideredContext: it determines the speaker s use of language and also the hearer s interpretation of w said to him. The notion of context is first noted by the British linguist John Firth in 1930s, andconstituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.Speech act theory:a.Austin smodel of speech acts: made a distinctionconstatives 陈述 -werestatements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable/performatives 表达 -were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable three acts: locutionary act 言内行为 本身意义 literal meaning, illocutionary act 言外 弦外之意 expressthe speaker s intention, perlocutionary a言ct 后带来的后果 resulting from saying somethingb.Searle s classification of speech acts :when people are speaking a language, they are doing sth, or performing acts; and the process of linguistic communication consists of a sequence of acts.Illocytionary point:representatives/assertives 阐 述 directives 指 令 commissives 承 诺expressives 表达 declarations 声明宣告c.Indirect speech acts: primary speech act- the speaker s goal of communication secondary speech-the means by which he achieves his goalsPrinciple of conversation 会话原就 by Grice: conventional implicature规约含义 是一个群体的规范惯例,说话时大家都能懂得 /particularizedconversational implicature 特别会话含义当新的信息显现,查找特别会话含义 Cooperative PrincipleCPby Grice:The maxim of quantity数量原就 :make your contribution as informative as required/do not make your contribution more informative than is requiredThe maxim of quality质量原就 : do not say what you believe to be false/ do not say that for which you lack adequate evidenceThe maxim of relation关系原就 :be relevantThe maxim of manner 方式原就 :avoid obscurity of expression/ avoid ambiguity/be brief/be orderlyChapter7 Language ChangeLexical and semantic change: 词汇和语义变化Addition of new words1Coinage 新造字及词语（ Kodak ） 2Clipped words 省略词（ gym-gymnasium ） 3Blending 合成词（ smog=smoke+fog ）4) Acronyms 首字母缩写（ CEO=chief executive officer ）5) Back-formation逆构词（ to donate-derived from donation ）6) Functional shift词性转变7) Borrowing借用（外来语）Loss of words （ beseem-to be suitable） Semantic changes1Semantic broadening 词义变宽（ holiday ） 2Semantic narrowing 词义变窄（ meat） 3Semantic shift 词义变化（ lust ）The causes of language changeThe rapid development of science and technologySocial and political changes and political needs Women have taken up activitiesThe way children acquire a language“ Economy of memory” which results in grammar simplificationChapter8 Language and SocietyThree types of speech variety: 话语群体 共同体Regional dialects, sociolects, registers Varieties of language 语言变体Dialectal varieties1Regional dialect 方言变体2Sociolect 社会方言3Language and gender4Language and age 5Idiolect 个人习语6Ethnic dialect 种族方言Register 语域Hallidayregsister theory:The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.分类： field of discourse 语域、语场 tenor of discourse语旨 mode of discourse 语式Eg: a lecture on biology in a technical collegeField: scientificTenor: teacher-studentsformal-politeMode: oralacademic lecturingField of discourse refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity.Tenor of discourse refers to the roleof relationshipinthe situationinquestion: whothe participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other.Mode of discourse mainly refers to the means of communication. Pidgin and Creole 洋泾浜语和克里奥尔语A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people whospeak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become acreole.Bilingualism and diglossia双语（类别）和双言（体裁）Two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes, this constitutes the situation ofbilingualism .Diglossia: in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.Chapter9 Language and CultureThe relationship between language and culture Language symbolizes cultural reality.Diachronically, any culture has its focus on how the social group represents itself, its technological achievements, monuments and works of art; synchronically, its historical identity is recorded and passed down by the pop culture.Culture also affects a discourse community s imagination, or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their behavior and life.The relation of language and culture is that of part to whole.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis :Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters peopleandthes pwearycethpetiocnategorize theirexperiences.This interdependence of language and thought is now known as SWH.Three forms of culture contact are identified: acculturation, assimilation, and amalgamation.Acculturation is the process of changing in material culture, traditional practices, and beliefs that occurs when one group csulturalsystem interferes withthat of another, directlyor indirectly challenging the latter to adapt to the ways of the former.文化适应,外来文化有力气,自己适应 外来的；Assimilation is the process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnicity are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society.同化,吸取,自己文化强,外来的适应自己的；Amalgamationoccurs when a society becomes ethnicallymixedin a way that represents a synthesis rather than the elimination or absorption of one group by another.融合,混合,两个文 化势力相当；Culture overlap between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings.Culture imperialism （ 文 化 入 侵 ） ,owing to linguistic imperialism which is a kind of linguicism-the promulgation of global ideologies through the worldwide expansion of one language.#小孩的言语习得1. 行为主义 a behaviorist view of language acquisition: 语言是仿照,反复强化得到的（这一理 论说明不了我们的制造力）language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation2. 天生主义 an innatist view of language acquisition:Chomsky proposed that human beings are born with an innate ability known as Languageacquisition deviceLAD3. 互动主义 an interactionist view of language acquisition : language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.#关键时期假说critical period hypothesis 举例：狼孩）LAD works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time, a specific and limited time period for language acquisition, which is referred to the critical period hypothesisCPH#母语习得和其次外语习得的关系1. relationship:the studies on the first language acquisition have influenced enormously those on the second language acquisition at both theoretical and practical levels. The first language study has served as a backcloth for perceiving and understanding new facts about second language learning.2. interlanguage 中介语：母语和外语之间的语言我们所使用的会显现错误的语言an abstract system of learner s target language system and it has now been abstract system of learns language system and it has now beweidnely used to refer to the linguistic expressionslearners produce,especially the wrong or not idiomatic onesInput Hyothesis 输入假说 by Krashen-the learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving“ comprehensive input” , Krashen de“fini+e1s i”t as#neurolinguistics 神经语言学含义： is the study of two related areas:language disorders and the relationship between the brain and language.#psycholinguistics 心理语言学含义： is the study of psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language