《语言学导论》重点整理(共20页).doc
精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上1 .An Introduction to Linguistics and language1. What is Linguistics? Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavors to answer the question-what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language.2. Basic criteria for doing Linguistics1. Objectivity 2. Explicitness 3. Rigorousness 4. Adequacy3. The Scope of Linguistics(1) General Linguistics: the study of language as a whole Phonetics: the study of sounds in linguistic communication Phonology: the study of the sound patterns of language. It is concerned with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. Morphology : the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.4. The Scope of Linguistics (2) : Syntax the study of sentence structure. It attempts to describe what is grammatical in a particular language in term of rules Semantics: the study of meaning. Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context Sociolinguistics: the study of social aspects of language and its relation with society. Psycholingustics:the study of language with relation to psychology Applied linguistics: the study of applications of linguistics.5. Some distinctions in linguistics Prescriptive vs.descriptive Synchronic vs. diachronic Speech and writing Langue and parole Competence and performance Traditional grammar and modern linguistics(linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive; modern linguistics regards spoken language as primary, not the written; modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force language into a Latin-based framework.)6. What is language? Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary-makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground. Walt Whitman7. The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication8. Design features (Properties) Arbitrariness: vast majority of linguistic expressions are arbitrary Productivity: creativity or open-endedness Duality: double articulation(sounds and meanings) Displacement: eg. Santa Claus, Superman, dragon Cultural transmission: meme, memics (Discreteness:the sounds used in language are meaningfully distinct. Eg. pack, back)9. Assignments Comment on the definition of language.Summarize the design features of language.What is your understanding of synchronic study of language2.Chapter 2 Phonetics and phonology1. Phonetics: the sounds of language Three branches of phonetics Articulatory Phonetics发音语音学: the production of speech sounds. Auditory Phonetics听觉语音学: the study of the perception of speech sounds Acoustic Phonetics声学语音学: the study of the physical production and transmission of speech sounds.2. Organs of speech: 1.The pharyngeal cavity喉腔 2.The oral cavity口腔 3.The nasal cavity鼻腔3. Two kinds of transcription Broad transcription宽式标音: transcription with letter-symbols Narrow transcription窄式标音: transcription with letter-symbols and the diacritics4. Classification of English consonants5. Classification of English vowels6. Phonology : the sound patterns of language Difference Phone, phoneme, allophone Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair7. Phones, phonemes, and allophones Phonology is the study of sound patterns of language( i.e. how sounds are arranged to form meaningful units) and the function of each sound. It reveals what are the possible combinations of sounds in a language and explains why certain words take the form they do.8. Phone 音素 phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speechi) phonetic unit ii) not distinctive of meaning iii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with 9. Phoneme 音位 the minimal unit in the sound system of a language. With phonemes, we establish the patterns of organization within the infinitely large number of sounds. Each language can be shown to operate with a relatively small number of phonemes (15-80). No two languages have the same phonemic system.10. Phoneme 音位i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaning iii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /.11.Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different; 3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment. Minimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc.11. Allophone 音位变体: phonic variants/realizations of a phoneme12. Phonological rules: Phonological patterning is rule-governed. blik and kilb, though not found in English, can be possible combinations, while kbil or lkib cannot. Sequential rules are those that account for the combination of sounds in a particular language. They are language-specific, as in the following cases: * tlait iltrit13.Sequential rule If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should follow the order/sequence below: a. The first phoneme must be /s/ b. The second phoneme must be /p/, /t/ or /k/ c. The third phoneme must be /l/, /r/, or /w/. spring, string, squirrel, split, screen14. Assimilation rule A sound may change by assimilating/copying a feature of a sequential/neighboring sound, e.g. impossible, irresistible, illegal in- Question: What other examples? sink /since pan cake sun glasses five past seven has to15. Deletion rule A sound may be deleted even though it may be orthographically represented.16.Stress, tone, and intonation Suprasegmental （超切分）phonology Suprasegmental phonemes: stress, tone and intonation17.Stress重音 Word stress/sentence stress Primary stress/secondary stress Stress of compounds: blackbird / black bird; greenhouse / green house Sentence stress: Depending on the relative importance of the words; contrastive stress18. Tone (声调） Different rates of vibration produce different frequencies, which are termed as different pitches. Pitch variations are distinctive of meaning. In some languages like Chinese, pitch variations are called tones. Languages using tones are tone languages.19. Intonation（语调） When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence, they combine to become known as intonation.Three major types of English intonation: a. falling tone/tune b. rising tone/tune c. fall-rise tone/tune20. Assignments: Difference between phonetics and phonology Phone, phoneme, allophone Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair3. Morphology（词法）1. Morphology is the study of word formation and structure. It studies how words are put together from their smaller parts and the rules governing this process.2. Two kinds of words 1. Open class words: content words .e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs 2. Closed class words: grammatical words or functional words. E.g. conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns3. Word Relations Words can be related to other words, e.g. "happy" "unhappy". The rules that relate such sets of words are called Word Formation Rules. Thus, the morphology contains fundamental elements morphemes rules of combination - Word Formation Rules4. Morphemes The elements that are combining to form words are called morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning you can have in a language. we know three things about every morpheme:1. its meaning 2. its form (the sounds that make it up) 3. a rule of combination (put it before/after/inside the stem)5. A case: Unhappy Happier unhappier6. Bound and Free Morphemes " In the word doors" there are two morphemes: "door" and "-s". The morpheme "door" can be used by itself, so it is called a FREE morpheme. But the morpheme "s" cannot be used by itself: "How many doors did you shut?" "More than one." OK "s" Not OK Therefore, "-s" is called a BOUND morpheme.7. Affixes Morphemes added to free forms to make other free forms are called affixes. There are four principle kinds of affixes:1. prefixes (at beginning) "un-" in "unable"2. suffixes (at end) "-ed" in "walked"3. circumfixes (at both ends) "en-en" in "enlighten" (These always seem to consist of otherwise attested independent prefixes and suffixes.)4. infixes (in the middle) - "-bloody-" in "inbloody- credible"8.Derivational morphemes Derivational morphemes may or may not change the category, or grammatical class of words. E.g. Noun- Adjective affection + ate alcohol+ ic9. Inflectional Morphology Morphology that interacts with syntax (sentence structure) is called INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY Some examples are: person number gender noun class case tense Inflectional morphemes never change the category. Inflectional morphemes do not change the "core" meaning of the word. Inflectional morphemes usually occur "outside" derivational ones. 10. A Rule for Forming some English Words 11. Compounds12. Other ways of Forming Words13. Word-formation:the creation of new words on the basis of existing structural devices in the languagederivation compoundingderivational affixation clipping, abbreviation, acronyms conversion14. Word formation * affixation * coinage: Ford, Kodak * compounding/composition: hot-line, keep-fit * conversion /functional shift : knee, cool, trigger, brake * derivation: alcoholic, affectionate * back-formation:edit, babysit, massproduce, laze * blending: smog, motel, globesity * shortening (clipped words, acronym) * borrowing: tea, algebra15. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? Lab OED16. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? lab babysit (from: babysitter)17. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? institution-al skin-deep18. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? to strength-en to house (e.g. this building houses 500 families)19. Assignments Distinguish the following terms: Open class words and closed class words Bound morpheme and free morpheme Inflectional morpheme and derivational morpheme List some rules of word formation4. syntax1. Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. Syntactic rules How do we COMBINE WORDS to make SENTENCES? Syntax uses trees (just as in morphology) but the trees are built on WORDS instead of morphemes. Words are the fundamental units of sentences. The laws of combination for words are the syntactic rules.3. Sentence Structure We know that there is structure in sentences separate from the meaning of the sentence because of the difference between "well formed nonsense" (1) and "total gibberish" (2) : (1) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. (2) Green sleep furiously ideas colorless. Which sounds better ?4. Word-level categories Major lexical categories N( Noun) book, boy V(Verb) run, buy A(Adjective) happy, heavy P (Preposition) about, in Minor lexical categories Det (determiner) the, a this Deg (Degree word) quite, very Qual (Qualifier) often, always Aux(Auxiliary) must, should Con (Conjunction) and, but5. Three criteria for judging the words categories 1.meaning Nounentity 2.inflection -ed, -s 3.distribution the girl Det+ N6. Phrase categories Phrases are constructed out of a "head" plus other material into: Noun Phrase (NP) Verb Phrase (VP) Adjective Phrase (AP) Prepositional Phrase (PP)7. Head, specifier, complement Head: the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier: the words on the left side of the heads complement: the words on the right side of the heads E.g. a touching story about a sentimental girl8. Phrase Structure Rules NP (Det)N (PP) VP (Qual) V ( NP) AP (Deg)A (PP) PP (Deg) P (NP)9. XP rule X= N, V, A or P XP (specifier) X (complement)10. X theory XP (specifier) X X - X(complement)11. Co-ordination rules X X Con X12. XP rule (revised): XP (specifier) X (complement ) Matrix clause Complement phrase (CP) Complement clause Complementizers (Cs)13. Modifier AP PP AdvP The expanded XP rules XP (spec)(Mod) X (complement*)(Mod)14. The S rule S NP VP Det N V P Det N | | | | | | The cat is on the mat15. Transformational Rules Once we have built a basic tree, we then might want to change it, for example to turn it into a question.1. John is going to school.2. Is John going to school? What happened between (1) and (2)? "Is" moved to the front. How did we make the yes/no question? What change did we make?16.Deep structure and surface structure:Deep structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from insertion of lexical items into the tree structure generated by the phrase structure rules. Surface structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from the application of whatever transformations are needed to yield the final syntactic form of the sentence.17. The organization of the syntactic component The XP rule Deep structure transformations Surface structure18. Wh Movement Move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP19. Word Order Recall that languages can choose the order of the constituents in a phrase structure rule. English: PP P NP Japanese: PP NP P20. SVO We can say that the overall word-order in a simple sentence is Subject-Verb-Object or SVO. There are two choices for each rule:1. Sentence: S NP VP S VP NP2. Verb Phrase: VP V NP VP NP V21. Assignments Draw two possible trees for the sentence “The boy saw the man with the telescope. ”5. Semantics1. Semantics is the study of meaning.2. The Meanings of Meaning Everyday use and ambiguity of the word mean(ing) (1) Daddy, what does 'unique' mean? (2) When Mary talks about "her ex" she means me.(3) 'Purchase' means the same as 'buy'. (4) Gwailou means "foreign devil".(5) When he drinks it means he's depressed. (6) I didn't mean to hurt you.3. Ogden and Richards' The Meaning of Meaning (1923
