植物学专业英语资料(经典超全面)(共73页).doc

精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上Chapter 1 Botany and Its Subdisciplines1.1 Botany 1.1.1 DefinitionBotany is the branch of biology concerned with the scientific study of plants. 1.1.2 Scope of plantØ Two-kingdom system: Plantae and Animalia Plant is any organism that can not move.Plant is any autotrophic organism. It produces its own food from raw inorganic materials and sunlight. Ø Five-kingdom system: Monera, Protista , Fungi , Plantae, Animalia Plant is a multicellular, eukaryotic organism that generally does not have sensory organs or voluntary motion and has, when complete, a root, stem, and leaves. 1.2 Plant Cytology 1.2.1 DefinitionPlant Cell Biology (formerly plant cytology) is the branch of Botany and Cell Biology that studies plant cells. 1.2.2 Research areasØ Physiological properties of cellsØ Cell structure (include organelles)Ø Interactions with environmentØ Cell cycleØ Cell division Ø Cell death1.2.3 Research ToolsØ Optical MicroscopeØ Transmission Electron MicroscopeØ Scanning Electron MicroscopeØ Fluorescence MicroscopeØ Confocal Microscope 1.3 Plant Morphology 1.3.1 DefinitionPlant morphology is the branch of Botany that studies the physical forms and external structures of plants.Plant morphology represents a study of the development, form, and structure of plants. 1.3.2 Research areasThere are four major areas of investigation in plant morphology, and each overlaps with another field of the biological sciences.Ø Comparative morphology: the morphologist examines structures in many different plants of the same or different species, then draws comparisons and formulates ideas about similarities. This aspect of plant morphology overlaps with the study of plant evolution and paleobotany.l Homology - the structure is similar between the two species because of shared ancestry and common genetics. For example, the leaves of pine, oak, and cabbage all look very different, but share certain basic structures and arrangement of parts. l Convergence - the structure is similar between the two species because of independent adaptation to common environmental pressures. Ø Plant development : the process by which structures originate and mature as a plant grows. This area of plant morphology overlaps with plant physiology and ecology. Ø Vegetative and reproductive characters : Plant morphology treats both the vegetative structures of plants, as well as the reproductive structures. This area of plant morphology overlaps with the study of biodiversity and plant systematics. Ø Structures at a range of scales: At the smallest scales are ultrastructure, the general structural features of cells visible only with the aid of an electron microscope. At this scale, plant morphology overlaps with plant anatomy. At the largest scale is the study of plant growth habit, the overall architecture of a plant. 1.4 Plant Anatomy Plant anatomy is the study of the internal structure of plants. It was included in plant morphology before. It is now frequently investigated at the cellular level, and often involves the sectioning of tissues and microscopy. 1.5 Plant Taxonomy 1.5.1 DefinitionPlant taxonomy is the science that finds, describes, classifies, identifies, and names plants. Plant taxonomy is closely allied to plant systematics, and there is no sharp boundary between the two. In practice, "plant systematics" is involved with relationships between plants and their evolution, especially at the higher levels, whereas "plant taxonomy" deals with the actual handling of plant specimens. 1.5.2 Two goals of plant taxonomy Two goals of plant taxonomy are the identification and classification of plants. The distinction between these two goals is important and often overlooked. Plant identification is the determination of the identity of an unknown plant by comparison with previously collected specimens or with the aid of books or identification manuals. The process of identification connects the specimen with a published name. Once a plant specimen has been identified, its name and properties are known. Plant classification is the placing of known plants into groups or categories to show some relationship. Scientific classification follows a system of rules that standardizes the results, and groups successive categories into a hierarchy.1.6 Plant ecology Plant ecology is the subdiscipline of ecology which studies the distribution and abundance of plants, the interactions among and between members of plant species, and their interactions with their environment. Plant ecology has its roots both in plant geography and in studies of the interactions between individual plants and their environment. The scope of plant ecology encompasses plant ecophysiology, plant population ecology, community ecology, ecosystem ecology, landscape ecology and global ecology. At finer scales there are distinct differences between plant and animal ecology, but at broader scales like ecosystem ecology studies tend to integrate across subdisciplines.1.7 Plant physiologyPlant physiology is a subdiscipline of botany concerned with the functioning of plants. Closely related fields include plant morphology, plant ecology (interactions with the environment), phytochemistry (biochemistry of plants), cell biology, and molecular biology. Fundamental processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, plant nutrition, plant hormone functions, tropisms, nastic movements, photoperiodism, photomorphogenesis, circadian rhythms, environmental stress physiology, seed germination, seed dormancy, stomata function and transpiration are studied by plant physiologists.1.8 PhytochemistryPhytochemistry is in the strict sense of the word the study of chemicals derived from plants. In a narrower sense the terms are often used to describe the large number of secondary metabolic compounds found in plants. Techniques commonly used in the field of phytochemistry are extraction, isolation and structural elucidation of natural products, as well as various chromatography techniques (MPLC, HPLC, LC-MS).1.9 EthnobotanyEthnobotany is the scientific study of the relationships that exist between people and plants. Ethnobotanists aim to document, describe and explain complex relationships between cultures and uses of plants, focusing on how plants are used, managed and perceived across human societies (e.g. as foods; as medicines; in divination; in cosmetics; in dyeing; as textiles; in construction; as tools; as currency; as clothing; in literature; in rituals; and in social life.1.10 Paleobotany Paleobotany is the branch of paleontology or paleobiology dealing with the recovery and identification of plant remains from geological contexts, and their use for the biological reconstruction of past environments and the evolutionary history of plants. Paleobotany includes the study of terrestrial plant fossils, as well as the study of prehistoric marine photoautotrophs, such as photosynthetic algae, seaweeds or kelp. A closely-related field is palynology, which is the study of fossilized and extant spores and pollen. Paleobotany is important in the reconstruction of ancient ecological systems and climate, known as paleoecology and paleoclimatology respectively; and is fundamental to the study of green plant development and evolution. Paleobotany has also become important to the field of archaeology, primarily for the use of phytoliths in relative dating.1.11 Plant Geography 1.11.1 DefinitionPhytogeography is the branch of biogeography that is concerned with the geographic distribution of plant species. Phytogeography is concerned with all aspects of plant distribution, from the controls on the distribution of individual species ranges to the factors that govern the composition of entire communities and floras. 1.11.2 Research areasØ Ecological Phytogeography investigates the role of current day biotic and abiotic interactions in influencing plant distributions.Ø Historical Phytogeography is concerned with historical reconstruction of the origin, dispersal, and extinction of taxa. Ø Floristics is a study of the flora of some territory or area. 1.12 Plant Molecular BiologyPlant Molecular biology is the study of molecular underpinnings of the process of replication, transcription and translation of the genetic materials in plants. Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. This field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interactions between DNA, RNA and protein biosynthesis as well as learning how these interactions are regulated. 1.13 Plant GeneticsPlant genetics is the branch of Botany and Genetics that deals with heredity, especially the mechanisms of hereditary transmission and the variation of inherited characteristics among similar or related plants. Chapter 2 Plant Cell2.1 ProtoplasmProtoplasm is the living content of a cell that is surrounded by a cell membrane. Protoplasm is composed of a mixture of small molecules such as ions, amino acids, monosaccharides and water, and macromolecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, lipids and polysaccharides. Protoplasm is distinct from non-living cell components named as ergastic substances, although ergastic substances can occur in the protoplasm. A protoplast is a plant or fungal cell that has had its cell wall removed.2.2 Plant Cell Structure2.2.1 Cell WallA cell wall is a tough, flexible and sometimes fairly rigid layer that surrounds some types of cells. It is located outside the cell membrane. Cell walls are found in plants, bacteria, fungi, algae, and some archaea. Animals and protozoa do not have cell walls.The wall gives cells rigidity and strength, offering protection against mechanical stress. In multicellular organisms, it permits the organism to build and hold its shape. The cell wall also limits the entry of large molecules that may be toxic to the cell. It further prevents over-expansion when water enters the cell and helps to retain water. 2.2.1.1 Layers of cell wallØ Middle lamella: the outermost layer rich in pectins, which forms the interface between adjacent plant cells and glues them together. Ø Primary wall: generally a thin, flexible and extensible layer formed while the cell is growing. Ø Secondary wall: a thick layer formed inside the primary cell wall after the cell is fully grown. It is not found in all cell types. In some cells, such as found in xylem, the secondary wall contains lignin, which strengthens and waterpoofs the wall. 2.2.1.2 Composition of cell wallØ Cellulose: polymer of glucose. Ø Hemicellulose: a polysaccharide composed of a variety of sugars including xylose, arabinose and mannose. Ø Pectin: polymer of around 200 galacturonic acid molecules.Ø Glycoproteins: proteins that contain oligosaccharide chains attached to polypeptide side-chains. Ø Lignin: a cross-linked macromolecule with molecular masses in excess of 10,000. It is relatively hydrophobic and aromatic. In plants, the strongest component of the complex cell wall is a carbohydrate called cellulose, which is a polymer of glucose. In bacteria, peptidoglycan forms the cell wall. Archaean cell walls have various compositions, and may be formed of glycoprotein, pseudopeptidoglycan, or polysaccharides. Fungi possess cell walls made of chitin, the glucosamine polymer. Algae typically possess walls made of glycoproteins and polysaccharides. Unusually, diatoms have a cell wall composed of silicic acid. 2.2.1.3 Specialization of cell wall² Lignification: an insertion of lignin in cell wall. ² Cutinication: an incrustation of cutin, a waxy polymer that is the main components of the cuticle which covers all aerial surfaces of plants. ² Suberization: an insertion of suberin, a waxy substance found in higher plants. ² Mineralization: the inlay of calcium carbonate or silicon dioxide in cell wall.2.2.1.4 Pit and PlasmodesmaPit is a hole on cell wall. There are two kinds of pit: simple pit and bordered pit. Plasmodesmata (singular: plasmodesma) are tiny strands of cytoplasm that extend between the cells through minute openings. 2.2.2 Cell membrane 2.2.2.1 Composition and StructureThe cell membrane consists primarily of a thin layer of amphipathic phospholipids which spontaneously arrange so that the hydrophobic "tail" regions are shielded from the surrounding polar fluid, causing the more hydrophilic "head" regions to associate with the cytosolic and extracellular faces of the resulting bilayer. This forms a continuous, spherical lipid bilayer.Proteins in the cell membranes may be integral or peripheral.² Integral proteins or transmembrane proteins span the membrane and have a hydrophilic cytosolic domain, which interacts with internal molecules, a hydrophobic membrane-spanning domain that anchors it within the cell membrane, and a hydrophilic extracellular domain that interacts with external molecules. ² Peripheral proteins are present on only one side of the membrane. They attach to integral membrane proteins or associate with peripheral regions of the lipid bilayer. They tend to have only temporary interactions with biological membranes. 2.2.2.2 Function The cell membrane is the biological membrane separating the interior of a cell from the outside environment. The arrangement of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer prevent polar solutes (e.g. amino acids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, proteins, and ions) from diffusing across the membrane, but generally allows for the passive diffusion of hydrophobic molecules. This affords the cell the ability to control the movement of these substances via transmembrane protein complexes such as pores and gates. The cell membrane are involved in many cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion channel conductance and cell signaling. The plasma membrane also serves as the attachment point for both the intracellular cytoskeleton and the extracellular cell wall.2.2.3 CytoplasmThe cytoplasm is the part of a cell that is enclosed within the cell membrane. In eukaryotic cells, the contents of the cell nucleus are not part of the cytoplasm and are instead called the nucleoplasm. Also in eukaryotic cells, the cytoplasm contains organelles and cytosol. ² Organelles are membrane-bound compartments within the cell that have specific functions. Some major organelles that are suspended in the cytosol are the mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, vacuoles, lysosomes, and in plant cells chloroplasts.² The cytosol is the portion of a cell that i