概率论与数理统计 (2).ppt

Probability and statistics,Textbook：probability and statisticsJay L. DevoreHigher Education Press,References,。Introduction to probability and statistics for engineers and scientists Henry L Alder, Edward B Roessler 。Introduction to probability theory and statistical InferenceLarson H J.。概率论与数理统计 浙江大学 盛骤等,。The concepts of chance and uncertainty are as old as civilization itself. People have always had to cope with uncertainty about the weather，their food supply，and other aspects of their environment，and have striven to reduce this uncertainty and its effects. 。Even the idea of gambling has a long history. By about the year 3500 B.C.，games of chance played with bone objects that could be considered precursors of dice were apparently highly developed in Egypt and elsewhere. Cubical dice with markings virtually identical to those on modern dice have been found in Egyptian tombs dating from 2000 B.C. 。We know that gambling with dice has been popular ever since that time and played an important part in the early development of probability theory.,Cha 1. Introduction,It is generally believed that the mathematical theory of probability was started by the French mathematicians Blaise Pascal（1623-1662）and Pierre Fermat（6011665）when they succeeded in deriving exact probabilities for certain gambling problems involving dice. In 1654, the Chevalier de Mere, a gambler,was considering the following problem: A game is played between two persons, and any one who firstly scores three points wins the game. In the game, each of the participants places at stake 32 counters and the winner will take entire stake of the 64 counters. The Chevalier was concerned that if the players left off playing when the game was only partially finished, how should the stakes be divided? Unable to find an answer to this problem, he consulted Blaise Pascal. Pascal solved the problem and communicated this solution to Fermat. Later, Fermat and Pascal, two of the greatest mathematicians of their times,laid a foundation for the theory of probability in their correspondences following Pascals solution.Some of the problems that they solved had been outstanding for about 300 years.,However.numerical probabilities of various dice combinations had been calculated previously bv Girolamo Cardano（15011 576）and Galileo Galilei（15641642）. The theory of probability has been developed steadily since the seventeenth century and has been widely applied in diverse fields of study.,Today, probability theory is an important tool in most areas of engineering, science, and management. Many research workers are actively engaged in the discovery and establishment of new applications of probability in fields such as medicine，meteorology，photography from satellites，marketing，earthquake prediction，human behavior, the design of computer systems，finance，genetics, and law.I n many legal proceedings involving antitrust violations or employment discrimination, both sides will present probability and statistical calculations to help support their cases.,Probability can be viewed as a study of the likelihood of a possible outcome to occur in an experiment. An experiment usually means an act such that there is uncertainty about the outcomes after it is performed. A typical example of an experiment is the act of observing the number of dots on the top face of a die upon rolling it. The mathematical counterpart of an experiment is usually called a sample space. The potential outcomes of a probabilistic experiment are called events.,There are many experiments other than gambling games can be seen in our daily life. For example,   l     Will tomorrow be sunny, or clouded, or raining?  l   Will the new teaching technique improve the studentslearning?   l    Will the students in your class become successful engineers? l    Will the next patient entering the doctors clinic have a higher temperature? l    Must I wait for more than 10 minutes for the next bus? The answers to all these questions are uncertain. These are good examples of experiments.,Probability is not only a tool for us to understand experiments with uncertain outcomes, but also a useful tool in solving problems in the areas closely related to our life. when a life insurance company sells a life insurance policy to a person, the insurance company must determine the fair amount of premium this new customer must pay for next year. How much should the fair amount of premium be? Graunt and Halley first applied probability to this problem. When the insurance company determines the premium of a customer, the insurance company must know how likely, or in mathematical terms, what is the probability of , a male in his 40s will die within one year. In other words, the insurance company must know the distribution of the probability of death, known as a mortality table in life insurance. The foundation for mortality determinations was laid by John Graunt and Edmund Halley in the late seventeen century.,When using experimental and observational methods to study a problem, one must collect data by means of observations and/or experiments. These data will inevitably have some kind of uncertainty: they may be affected by the time when the data are collected, the place where the data collected, and the mechanism with which the data are collected. The randomness of the data is also from the fact that we sometimes can only study a portion of the whole population, and which portion are selected to be studied is totally random. After the data are collected, one needs to analyze the data to come up with conclusions. How do we have conclusions with a reasonable level of assurance from such data with certain randomness? How big a portion we single out to study so that the analysis will closely reflect the population?,In order to solve these problems, statisticians have developed many techniques and theories. These techniques and theories constitute the content statistics. Informally speaking, statistics is a branch of mathematics that studies how to effectively collect and use the data with randomness. In order to effectively collect and use data, many mathematical methods and models will be involved. Some of the most commonly used methods and models will be discussed in the chapters that follow.,