英国历史简介_1.docx

英国历史简介英国英国简史(英文)2006-1-23页面功能【字体：大中小】【打印】【关闭】HistoryUntil1707,thissectiondealsprimarilywithEnglishhistory.EnglandandWaleswereformallyunitedin1536.In1707,whenGreatBritainwascreatedbytheActofUnionbetweenScotlandandEngland,EnglishhistorybecamepartofBritishhistory.FortheearlyhistoryofScotlandandWales,seeseparatearticles.SeealsoIreland;Ireland,Northern;andthetablesentitledRulersofEnglandandGreatBritainandPrimeMinistersofGreatBritain.EarlyPeriodtotheNormanConquestLittleisknownabouttheearliestinhabitantsofBritain,buttheremainsoftheirdolmensandbarrowsandthegreatstonecirclesatStonehengeandAveburyareevidenceofthedevelopedcultureoftheprehistoricBritons.TheyhaddevelopedaBronzeAgeculturebythetimethefirstCelticinvaders(early5thcent.B.C.)broughttheirenergeticIronAgeculturetoBritain.ItisbelievedthatJuliusCaesar'ssuccessfulmilitarycampaigninBritainin54B.C.wasaimedatpreventingincursionsintoGaulfromtheisland.InA.D.43theemperorClaudiusbegantheRomanconquestofBritain,establishingbasesatpresent-dayLondonandColchester.ByA.D.85,RomecontrolledBritainsouthoftheClydeRiver.Therewereanumberofrevoltsintheearlyyearsoftheconquest,themostfamousbeingthatofBoadicea.Inthe2dcent.A.D.,Hadrian'sWallwasconstructedasanortherndefenseline.UndertheRomanoccupationtownsdeveloped,androadswerebuilttoensurethesuccessofthemilitaryoccupation.TheseroadswerethemostlastingRomanachievementinBritain(seeWatlingStreet),longservingasthebasicarteriesofoverlandtransportationinEngland.Colchester,Lincoln,andGloucesterwerefoundedbytheRomansascolonia,settlementsofex-legionaries.Tradecontributedtotownprosperity;wine,oliveoil,plate,andfurnishingswereimported,andlead,tin,iron,wheat,andwoolwereexported.ThistradedeclinedwiththeeconomicdislocationofthelateRomanEmpireandthewithdrawalofRomantroopstomeetbarbarianthreatselsewhere.Thegarrisonshadbeenconsumersoftheproductsoflocalartisansaswellasofimports;astheyweredisbanded,thetownsdecayed.Barbarianincursionsbecamefrequent.In410anappealtoRomeformilitaryaidwasrefused,andRomanofficialssubsequentlywerewithdrawn.AsRomewithdrewitslegionsfromBritain,GermanicpeoplestheAnglo-SaxonsandtheJutesbeganraidsthatturnedintogreatwavesofinvasionandsettlementinthelater5thcent.TheCeltsfellbackintoWalesandCornwallandacrosstheEnglishChanneltoBrittany,andthelooselyknittribesofthenewcomersgraduallycoalescedintoaheptarchyofkingdoms(seeKent,Sussex,Essex,Wessex,EastAnglia,Mercia,andNorthumbria).Lateinthe8thcent.,andwithincreasingseverityuntilthemiddleofthe9thcent.,raidingVikings(knowninEnglishhistoryasDanes)harassedcoastalEnglandandfinally,in865,launchedafull-scaleinvasion.TheywerefirsteffectivelycheckedbyKingAlfredofWessexandwerewithgreatdifficultyconfinedtotheDanelaw,wheretheirleadersdividedlandamongthesoldiersforsettlement.Alfred'ssuccessorsconqueredtheDanelawtoformaunitedEngland,butnewDanishinvasionslateinthe10thcent.overcameineffectiveresistance(see?thelred,965?1016).TheDaneCanuteruledallEnglandby1016.AttheexpirationoftheScandinavianlinein1042,theWessexdynasty(seeEdwardtheConfessor)regainedthethrone.TheconquestofEnglandin1066byWilliam,dukeofNormandy(WilliamIofEngland),endedtheAnglo-Saxonperiod.Thefreeman(ceorl)oftheearlyGermanicinvadershadbeenresponsibletothekingandsuperiortotheserf.Subsequentcenturiesofwarandsubsistencefarming,however,hadforcedthemajorityoffreemenintoserfdom,ordependenceonthearistocracyoflordsandthanes,whocametoenjoyalargemeasureofautonomouscontrolovermanorsgrantedthembytheking(seemanorialsystem).Thecentralgovernmentevolvedfromtribalchieftainshipstobecomeamonarchyinwhichexecutiveandjudicialpowerswereusuallyvestedintheking.Thearistocracymadeuphiswitan,orcouncilofadvisers(seewitenagemot).Thekingsetupshiresasunitsoflocalgovernmentruledbyearldormen.Insomeinstancestheseearldormenbecamepowerfulhereditaryearls,rulingseveralshires.Subdivisionsofshireswerecalledhundreds.Therewereshireandhundredcourts,theformerheadedbysheriffs,thelatterbyreeves.Agriculturewastheprincipalindustry,buttheDaneswereaggressivetraders,andtownsincreasedinimportancestartinginthe9thcent.TheAnglo-SaxonshadbeenChristianizedbymissionariesfromRomeandfromIreland,andtheinfluenceofChristianitybecamestronglymanifestinallphasesofculture(seeAnglo-Saxonliterature).DifferencesbetweenIrishandcontinentalreligiouscustomsweredecidedinfavoroftheRomanformsattheSynodofWhitby(663).Monasticcommunities,outstandinginthelater7thandinthe8thcent.andstronglyrevivedinthe10th,developedgreatproficiencyinmanuscriptillumination.Churchscholars,suchasBede,Alcuin,andAelfricaswellasKingAlfredhimselfpreservedandadvancedlearning.MedievalEnglandAnewerainEnglishhistorybeganwiththeNormanConquest.WilliamIintroducedNorman-stylepoliticalandmilitaryfeudalism.Heusedthefeudalsystemtocollecttaxes,employedthebureaucracyofthechurchtostrengthenthecentralgovernment,andmadetheadministrationofroyaljusticemoreefficient.AfterthedeathofWilliam'ssecondson,HenryI,thecountrywassubjectedtoaperiodofcivilwarthatendedoneyearbeforetheaccessionofHenryIIin1154.HenryII'sreignwasmarkedbythesharpconflictbetweenkingandchurchthatledtothemurderofThomas角Becket.Henrycarriedoutgreatjudicialreformsthatincreasedthepowerandscopeoftheroyalcourts.Duringhisreign,in1171,begantheEnglishconquestofIreland.AspartofhisinheritancehebroughttothethroneAnjou,Normandy,andAquitaine.ThedefenseandenlargementoftheseFrenchterritoriesengagedtheenergiesofsuccessiveEnglishkings.IntheirneedformoneythekingsstimulatedthegrowthofEnglishtownsbysellingthemchartersofliberties.Conflictbetweenkingsandnobles,whichhadbegununderRichardI,cametoaheadunderJohn,whomadeunprecedentedfinancialdemandsandwhoseforeignandchurchpolicieswereunsuccessful.AtemporaryvictoryofthenoblesborefruitinthemostnotedofallEnglishconstitutionaldocuments,theMagnaCarta(1215).Therecurringbaronialwarsofthe13thcent.(seeBarons'War;Montfort,Simonde,earlofLeicester)wereroughlycontemporaneouswiththefirststepsinthedevelopmentofParliament.EdwardIbegantheconquestofWalesandScotland.Healsocarriedoutanelaboratereformandexpansionofthecentralcourtsandofotheraspectsofthelegalsystem.TheHundredYearsWarwithFrancebegan(1337)inthereignofEdwardIII.TheBlackDeath(seeplague)firstarrivedin1348andhadatremendouseffectoneconomiclife,hasteningthebreakdown(longsinceunderway)ofthemanorialandfeudalsystems,includingtheinstitutionofserfdom.Atthesametimethefast-growingtownsandtradesgavenewprominencetotheburgessandartisanclasses.Inthe14thcent.theEnglishbeganexportingtheirwool,ratherthandependingonforeigntradersofEnglishwool.Laterinthecentury,tradeinwoolenclothbegantogainontherawwooltrade.Theconfusionresultingfromsuchrapidsocialandeconomicchangefosteredradicalthought,typifiedintheteachingsofJohnWyclif(orWycliffe;seealsoLollardry,andtherevoltledbyWatTyler.Dynasticwars(seeRoses,Warsofthe),whichweakenedboththenobilityandthemonarchyinthe15thcent.,endedwiththeaccessionoftheTudorfamilyin1485.TudorEnglandThereignoftheTudors(14851603)isoneofthemostfascinatingperiodsinEnglishhistory.HenryVIIrestoredpoliticalorderandthefinancialsolvencyofthecrown,bequeathinghisson,HenryVIII,afullexchequer.In1536,HenryVIIIbroughtaboutthepoliticalunionofEnglandandWales.HenryandhisministerThomasCromwellgreatlyexpandedthecentraladministration.DuringHenry'sreigncommerceflourishedandtheNewLearningoftheRenaissancecametoEngland.SeveralfactorstherevivalofLollardry,anticlericalism,theinfluenceofhumanism,andburgeoningnationalismclimaxedbythepope'srefusaltograntHenryadivorcefromKatharineofArag车nsothathecouldremarryandhaveamaleheirledthekingtobreakwithRomanCatholicismandestablishtheChurchofEngland.AspartoftheEnglishReformation(152939),Henrysuppressedtheordersofmonksandfriarsandsecularizedtheirproperty.Althoughtheseactionsarousedsomepopularopposition(seePilgrimageofGrace),Henry'sjudicioususeofParliamenthelpedsecuresupportforhispoliciesandsetimportantprecedentsforthefutureofParliament.EnglandmovedfarthertowardProtestantismunderEdwardVI;afteragenerallyhatedRomanCatholicrevivalunderMaryI,theRomantiewasagaincutunderElizabethI,whoattemptedwithoutcompletesuccesstomoderatethereligiousdifferencesamongherpeople.TheElizabethanagewasoneofgreatartisticandintellectualachievement,itsmostnotablefigurebeingWilliamShakespeare.NationalpridebaskedintheexploitsofSirFrancisDrake,SirJohnHawkins,andtheotherseadogs.§OverseastradingcompanieswereformedandcolonizationattemptsintheNewWorldweremadebySirHumphreyGilbertandSirWalterRaleigh.AlongconflictwithSpain,growingpartlyoutofcommercialandmaritimerivalryandpartlyoutofreligiousdifferences,culminatedinthedefeatoftheSpanishArmada(1588),althoughthewarcontinuedanother15years.Inflatedprices(caused,inpart,byaninfluxofpreciousmetalsfromtheNewWorld)andthereservationoflandbytheprocessofinclosureforsheeppasture(stimulatedbytheexpansionofthewooltrade)causedgreatchangesinthesocialandeconomicstructureofEngland.Theenclosuresdisplacedmanytenantfarmersfromtheirlandsandproducedaclassofwandering,unemployedsturdybeggars.§TheElizabethanpoorlawswereanattempttodealwiththisproblem.Risingpricesaffectedthemonarchyaswell,byreducingthevalueofitsfixedcustomaryandhereditaryrevenues.Thecountrygentrywereenrichedbytheinclosuresandbytheirpurchaseofformermonasticlands,whichwerealsousedforgrazing.Thegentrybecameleadersinwhat,towardtheendofElizabeth'sreign,wasanincreasinglyassertiveParliament.TheStuartsTheaccessionin1603oftheStuartJamesI,whowasalsoJamesVIofScotland,unitedthethronesofEnglandandScotland.ThechronicneedformoneyofbothJamesandhisson,CharlesI,whichtheyattemptedtomeetbyunusualandextralegalmeans;theirespousalofthedivinerightofkings;theirdeterminationtoenforcetheirhighAnglicanpreferencesinreligion;andtheiruseofroyalcourtssuchasStarChamber,whichwerenotboundbythecommonlaw,topersecuteopponents,togetherproducedabitterconflictwithParliamentthatculminated(1642)intheEnglishcivilwar.Inthewartheparliamentarians,effectivelyledattheendbyOliverCromwell,defeatedtheroyalists.Thekingwastriedfortreasonandbeheaded(1649).Themonarchywasabolished,andthecountrywasgovernedbytheRumpParliament,theremainderofthelastParliament(theLongParliament)Charleshadcalled(1640),until1653,whenCromwelldissolveditandestablishedtheProtectorate.CromwellbrutallysubjugatedIreland,madeasinglecommonwealthofScotlandandEngland,andstrengthenedEngland'snavalpowerandpositionininternationaltrade.Whenhedied(1658),hisson,Richard,succeededasLordProtectorbutgovernedineffectively.ThethreatofanarchyledtoaninvitationbyanewlyelectedParliament(theConventionParliament)toCharles,sonofCharlesI,tobecomeking,usheringintheRestoration(1660).ItwassignificantthatParliamenthadsummonedtheking,ratherthanthereverse;itwasnowclearthattobesuccessfulthekinghadtocooperatewithParliament.TheWhigandTorypartiesdevelopedintheRestorationperiod.AlthoughCharlesIIwaspersonallypopular,theoldissuesofreligion,money,andtheroyalprerogativecametotheforeagain.ParliamentrevivedofficialAnglicanism(seeClarendonCode),butCharles'sprivatesympathieslaywithCatholicism.HeattemptedtobypassParliamentinthematterofrevenuebyreceivingsubsidiesfromLouisXIVofFrance.Charles'sbrotherandsuccessor,JamesII,wasanavowedCatholic.JamestriedtostrengthenhispositioninParliamentbytamperingwiththemethodsofselectingmembers;heputCatholicsinhighuniversitypositions,maintainedastandingarmy(whichlaterdesertedhim),andclaimedtherighttosuspendlaws.Thebirth(1688)ofamaleheir,who,itwasassumed,wouldberaisedasaCatholic,precipitatedacrisis.IntheGloriousRevolution,WhigandToryleadersofferedthethronetoWilliamofOrange(WilliamIII),whoseProtestantwife,Mary,wasJames'sdaughter.WilliamandMarywereproclaimedkingandqueenbyParliamentin1689.TheBillofRightsconfirmedthatsovereigntyresidedinParliament.TheActofToleration(1689)extendedreligiouslibertytoallProtestantsects;insubsequentyears,religiouspassionsslowlysubsided.BytheActofSettlement(1701)thesuccessiontotheEnglishthronewasdetermined.Since1603,withtheexceptionofthe165460portionoftheinterregnum,ScotlandandEnglandhadremainedtwokingdomsunitedonlyinthepersonofthemonarch.WhenitappearedthatWilliam'ssuccessor,QueenAnne,Mary'sProtestantsister,wouldnothaveanheir,theScottishsuccessionbecameofconcern,sincetheScottishParliamenthadnotpassedlegislationcorrespondingtotheActofSettlement.EnglandfearedthatunderaseparatemonarchScotlandmightallyitselfwithFrance,orworsestill,permitarestorationoftheCatholicheirsofJamesIIalthoughanon-ProtestantsuccessionhadbeenbarredbytheScottishParliament.Onitspart,ScotlandwishedtoachieveeconomicequalitywithEngland.TheresultwastheActofUnion(1707),bywhichthetwokingdomsbecameone.Scotlandobtainedrepresentationin(whatthenbecame)theBritishParliamentatWestminster,andtheScottishParliamentwasabolished.TheGrowthofEmpireandEighteenth-CenturyPoliticalDevelopmentsThebeginningsofBritain'snationaldebt(1692)andthefoundingoftheBankofEngland(1694)werecloselytiedwiththenation'smoreactiveroleinworldaffairs.Britain'soverseaspossessions(seeBritishEmpire)wereaugmentedbythevictoriousoutcomeoftheWaroftheSpanishSuccession,ratifiedinthePeaceofUtrecht(1713).BritainemergedfromtheWaroftheAustrianSuccessionandfromtheSevenYearsWarasthepossessoroftheworld'sgreatestempire.Thepeaceof1763(seeParis,Treatyof)confirmedBritishpredominanceinIndiaandNorthAmerica.SettlementsweremadeinAustraliatowardtheendofthe18thcent.;however,aseriouslosswassustainedwhen13NorthAmericancoloniesbrokeawayintheAmericanRevolution.AdditionalcolonieswerewoninthewarsagainstNapoleonI,notableforthevictoriesofHoratioNelsonandArthurWellesley,dukeofWellington.InIreland,theIrishParliamentwasgrantedindependencein1782,butin1798therewasanIrishrebellion.Avainattempttosolvethecenturies-oldIrishproblemwastheabrogationoftheIrishParliamentandtheunion(1801)ofGreatBritainandIreland,withIrelandrepresentedintheBritishParliament.DomesticallythelongministryofSirRobertWalpole(172142),duringthereignsofGeorgeIandGeorgeII,wasaperiodofrelativestabilitythatsawthebeginningsofthedevelopmentofthecabinetasthechiefexecutiveorganofgovernment.The18thcent.wasatimeoftransitioninthegrowthoftheBritishparliamentarysystem.Themonarchstillplayedaveryactiveroleingovernment,choosinganddismissingministersashewished.Occasionally,sentimentinParliamentmightforceanunwantedministeronhim,aswhenGeorgeIIIwasforcedtochooseRockinghamin1782,butthekingcoulddissolveParliamentandusehisconsiderablepatronagepowertosecureanewonemoreamenabletohisviews.Greatpoliticalleadersofthelate18thcent.,suchastheearlofChatham(seeChatham,WilliamPitt,1stearlof)andhissonWilliamPitt,couldnotgovernindisregardofthecrown.Importantmovementsforpoliticalandsocialreformaroseinthesecondhalfofthe18thcent.GeorgeIII'sarrogantandsomewhatanachronisticconceptionofthecrown'sroleproducedamovementamongWhigsinParliamentthatcalledforareformandreductionoftheking'spower.EdmundBurkewasaleaderofthisgroup,aswastheeccentricJohnWilkes.TheToryPittwasalsoareformer.ThesemenalsoopposedBritain'scolonialpolicyinNorthAmerica.OutsideParliament,religiousdissenters(whowereexcludedfrompoliticaloffice),intellectuals,andothersadvocatedsweepingreformsofestablishedpracticesandinstitutions.AdamSmith'sWealthofNations,advocatinglaissez-faire,appearedin1776,thesameyearasthefirs