毕业设计论文外文文献翻译.docx

毕业设计论文外文文献翻译 毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译 院系：财务与会计学院 年级专业：201*级财务管理 姓名： 学号：132148* 附件：财务风险管理 Although financial risk has increased significantly in recent years risk and risk management are not contemporary issues. The result of increasingly global markets is that risk may originate with events thousands of miles away that have nothing to do with the domestic market. Information is available instantaneously which means that change and subsequent market reactions occur very quickly. The economic climate and markets can be affected very quickly by changes in exchange rates interest rates and commodity prices. Counterparties can rapidly become problematic. As a result it is important to ensure financial risks are identified and managed appropriately. Preparation is a key component of risk management. Financial risk, Risk management, Yields I. Financial risks arising 1.1What Is Risk 1.1.1The concept of risk Risk provides the basis for opportunity. The terms risk and exposure have subtle differences in their meaning. Risk refers to the probability of loss while exposure is the possibility of loss although they are often used interchangeably. Risk arises as result of exposure. Exposure to financial markets affects most organizations either directly or indirectly. When an organization has financial market exposure there is a possibility of loss but also an opportunity for gain or profit. Financial market exposure may provide strategic or competitive benefits. Risk the possibility of loss Risk is the likelihood of losses resulting from events such as changes in market prices. Events with a low probability of occurring but that may result in a high loser particularly troublesome because they are often not anticipated. Put another way risk is the probable variability of returns. Since it is not always possible or desirable to eliminate risk understanding it is an important step in determining how to manage it. Identifying exposures and risks forms the basis for an appropriate financial risk management strategy. 1.1.2How Does Financial Risk Financial risk arises through countless transactions of a financial nature including sales and purchases investments and loans and various other business activities. It can arise as a result of legal transactions new projects mergers and acquisitions debt financing the energy component of costs or through the activities of management stakeholders competitors foreign governments or weather. When financial prices change dramatically it can increase costs reduce revenues or otherwise adversely impact the profitability of an organization. Financial fluctuations may make it more difficult to plan and budget price goods and services and allocate capital. There are three main sources of financial risk: 1.Financial risks arising from an organizations exposure to changes in market prices such as interest rates exchange rates and commodity prices. 2.Financial risks arising from the actions of and transactions with other organizations such as vendors customers and counterparties in derivatives transactions. 3.Financial risks resulting from internal actions or failures of the organization particularly people processes and systems. 2.1What Is Financial Risk Management Financial risk management is a process to deal with the uncertainties resulting from financial markets. It involves assessing the financial risks facing an organization and developing management strategies consistent with internal priorities and policies. Addressing financial risks proactively may provide an organization with a competitive advantage. It also ensures that management operational staff stakeholders and the board of directors are in agreement on key issues of risk. Managing financial risk necessitates making organizational decisions about risks that are acceptable versus those that are not. The passive strategy of taking no actions the acceptance of all risks by default. Organizations manage financial risk using a variety of strategies and products. It is important to understand how these products and strategies work to reduce risk within the context of the organizations risk tolerance and objectives. Strategies for risk management often involve derivatives. Derivatives are traded widely among financial institutions and on organized exchanges. The value of derivatives contracts such as futures forwards options and swaps is derived frothed price of the underlying asset. Derivatives trade on interest rates exchange rates commodities equity and fixed income securities credit and even weather. The products and strategies used by market participants to manage financial risk are the same ones used by speculators to increase leverage and risk. Although it can be argued that widespread use of derivatives increases risk the existence of derivatives enables those who wish to reduce risk to pass it along to those who seek risk and its associated opportunities. The ability to estimate the likelihood of a financial loss is highly desirable. However standard theories of probability often fail in the analysis of financial markets. Risks usually do not exist in isolation and the interactions of several exposures may have to be considered in developing an understanding of how financial risk arises. Sometimes these interactions are difficult to forecast since they ultimately depend on human behavior. The process of financial risk management is an ongoing one. Strategies need tube implemented and refined as the market and requirements change. Refinements may reflect changing expectations about market rates changes to the business environment or changing international political conditions for example. In general the process can be summarized as follows: 1.Identify and prioritize key financial risks. 2.Determine an appropriate level of risk tolerance. 3.Implement risk management strategy in accordance with policy. 4.Measure report monitor and refine as needed. 2.2Diversification For many years the riskiness of an asset was assessed based only on the variability of its returns. In contrast modern portfolio theory considers not only an assets riskiness but also its contribution to the overall riskiness of the portfolio to which it is added. Organizations may have an opportunity to reduce risk as a result of risk diversification. In portfolio management terms the addition of individual components to a portfolio provides opportunities for diversification within limits. A diversified portfolio contains assets whose returns are dissimilar in other words weakly or negatively correlated with one another. It is useful to think of the exposures of an organization as a portfolio and consider the impact of changes or additions on the potential risk of the total. Diversification is an important tool in managing financial risks. Diversification among counterparties may reduce the risk that unexpected events adversely impact the organization through defaults. Diversification among investment assets reduces the magnitude of loss if one issuer fails. Diversification of customers suppliers and financing sources reduces the possibility that an organization will have its business adversely affected by changes outside managements control. Although the risk of loss still exists diversification may reduce the opportunity for large adverse outcomes. 2.3Risk Management Process The process of financial risk management comprises strategies that enable an organization to manage the risks associated with financial markets. Risk management is a dynamic process that should evolve with an organization and its business. It involves and impacts many parts of an organization including treasury sales marketing legal tax commodity and corporate finance. The risk management process involves both internal and external analysis. The first part of the process involves identifying and prioritizing the financial risks facing an organization and understanding their relevance. It may be necessary to examine the organization and its products management customers suppliers competitors pricing industry trends balance sheet structure and position in the industry. It is also necessary to consider stakeholders and their objectives and tolerance for risk. Once a clear understanding of the risks emerges appropriate strategies can be implemented in conjunction with risk management policy. For example it might be possible to change where and how business is done thereby reducing the organizations exposure and risk. Alternatively existing exposures may be managed with derivatives. Another strategy for managing risk is to accept all risks and the possibility of losses. There are three broad alternatives for managing risk: 1.Do nothing and actively or passively by default accept all risks. 2.Hedge a portion of exposures by determining which exposures can and should be hedged. 3.Hedge all exposures possible. Measurement and reporting of risks provides decision makers with information to execute decisions and monitor outcomes both before and after strategies are taken to mitigate them. Since the risk management process is ongoing reporting and feedback can be used to refine the system by modifying or improving strategies. An active decision-making process is an important component of risk management. Decisions about potential loss and risk reduction provide a forum for discussion of important issues and the varying perspectives of stakeholders. Factors that Impact Financial Rates and Prices Financial rates and prices are affected by a number of factors. It is essential to understand the factors that impact markets because those factors in turn impact the potential risk of an organization. III. Factors Affecting Financial Ratios 3.1Factors that Affect Interest Rates Interest rates are a key component in many market prices and an important economic barometer. They are comprised of the real rate plus a component for expected inflation since inflation reduces the purchasing power of a lenders assets .The greater the term to maturity the greater the uncertainty. Interest rates are also reflective of supply and demand for funds and credit risk. Interest rates are particularly important to companies and governments because they are the key ingredient in the cost of capital. Most companies and governments require debt financing for expansion and capital projects. When interest rates increase the impact can be significant on borrowers. Interest rates also affect prices in other financial markets so their impact is far-reaching. Other components to the interest rate may include a risk premium to reflect the creditworthiness of a borrower. For example the threat of political or sovereign risk can cause interest rates to rise sometimes substantially as investors demand additional compensation for the increased risk of default. Factors that influence the level of market interest rates include: 1.Expected levels of inflation 2.General economic conditions 3.Monetary policy and the stance of the central bank 4.Foreign exchange market activity 5.Foreign investor demand for debt securities 6.Levels of sovereign debt outstanding 7.Financial and political stability 3.2Yield Curve The yield curve is a graphical representation of yields for a range of terms to maturity. For example a yield curve might illustrate yields for maturity from one day overnight to 30-year terms. Typically the rates are zero coupon government rates. Since current interest rates reflect expectations the yield curve provides useful information about the markets expectations of future interest rates. Implied interstates for forward-starting terms can be calculated using the information in the yield curve. For example using rates for one- and two-year maturities the expected one-year interest rate beginning in one years time can be determined. The shape of the yield curve is widely analyzed and monitored by market participants. As a gauge of expectations it is often considered to be a predictor of future economic activity and may provide signals of a pending change in economic fundamentals. The yield curve normally slopes upward with a positive slope ascenders/investors demand higher rates from borrowers for longer lending terms. Since the chance of a borrower default increases with term to maturity lenders demand to be compensated accordingly. Interest rates that make up the yield curve are also affected by the expected rate of inflation. Investors demand at least the expected rate of inflation from borrowers in addition to lending and risk components. If investors expect future inflation to be higher they will demand greater premiums for longer terms to compensate for this uncertainty. As a result the longer the term the higher the interest rate all else being equal resulting in an upward-sloping yield curve. Occasionally the demand for short-term funds increases substantially and short-term interest rates may rise above the level of longer term interest rates. This results in an inversion of the yield curve and a downward slope to its appearance. The high cost of short-term funds detracts from gains that would otherwise be obtained through investment and expansion and make the economy vulnerable to slowdown or recession. Eventually rising interest rates slow the demand for both short-term and long-term funds. A decline in all rates and a return to a normal curve may occur as a result of the slowdown. 尽管近年来金融风险大大增加，但风险和风险管理不是当代的主要问题。全球市场越来越多的问题是，风险可能来自几千英里以外的与这些事件无关的国外市场。意味着需要的信息可以在瞬间得到，而其后的市场反应，很快就发生了。经济气候和市场可能会快速影响外汇汇率变化、利率及大宗商品价格，交易对手会迅速成为一个问题。因此，重要的一点是要确保金融风险是可以被识别并且管理得当的。准备是风险管理工作的一个关键组成部分。 财务风险，风险管理，收益率 一、财务风险的产生 （一）什么是风险？ 1.风险的概念 风险给机会提供了基础。风险和暴露的条款让它们在含义上有了细微的差别。风险是指有损失的可能性，而暴露是可能的损失，尽管他们通常可以互换。风险起因是由于暴露。 金融市场的暴露影响大多数机构，包括直接或间接的影响。当一个组织的金融市场暴露，有损失的可能性，但也是一个获利或利润的机会。金融市场的暴露可以提供战略性或竞争性。 2.风险损失的可能性 风险损失的可能性事件来自如市场价格的变化。事件发生的可能性很小，但这可能导致损失率很高，特别麻烦，因为他们往往比预想的要严重得多。换句话说，可能就是变异的风险回报。 由于它并不总是可能的，或者能满意地把风险消除，在决定如何管理它中了解它是很重要的一步。识别暴露和风险形式的基础需要相应的财务风险管理策略。 （二）财务风险是如何产生的 无数金融性质的交易包括销售和采购，投资和贷款，以及其他各种业务活动，产生了财务风险。它可以出现在合法的交易中，新项目中，兼并和收购中，债务融资中，能源部分的成本中，或通过管理的活动，利益相关者，竞争者，外国政府，或天气出现。当金融的价格变化很大，它可以增加成本，降低财政收入，或影响其他有不利影响的盈利能力的组织。金融波动可能使人们难以规划和预算商品和服务的价格，并分配资金。 有三种金融风险的主要来源： 1.金融风险起因于组织所暴露出来的市场价格的变化，如利率、汇率、和大宗商品价格。 2.引起金融风险的行为有与其他组织的交易如供应商、客户，和对方在金融衍生产品中的交易。 3.由于内部行动或失败的组织，特别是人、过程和系统所造成的金融风险。 二、财务风险管理 （一）什么是财务风险管理？ 财务风险管理是用来处理金融市场中不确定的事情的。它涉及到一个组织所面临的评估和组织的发展战略、内部管理的优先事项和当政策一致时的财务风险。企业积极应对金融风险可以使企业成为一个具有竞争优势的组织。它还确保管理，业务人员，利益