2022年语言学知识板块及考点总结.docx

精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 学习必备 欢迎下载语言学学问板块及考点总结定义篇 phoneticsU2 of 陈； C3 of 丁 phonetics deals with description, classification and transcription of speech sounds. 2consonants are sounds produced by obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. 3cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowel of existing languages. 4coarticulation is the process of simultaneous or overlapping articulations when sounds show the influence of their neighbors. 5phonetics transcription: 1. when we try to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation, it is called narrow transcription. 2. when we use a set of simple symbols in our transcription, trying to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguish one word from another in a given language, it is called broad transcription. 6RP: short for received pronunciation, the standard accent of English as spoken in the south of England, It has been the accent of those with power, money and influence since the early to mid 20th century. phonology 1 phonology is concerned with the exploration of the patterns governing sound combinations. 2 Phones are the smallest perceptible segment of sounds in a stream of speech.3 phoneme is an abstract collection of phonetics features which can distinguish meaning.4 minimal pair : when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment in the same place in strings, the two sound segments are called a minimal pair. 5 allophones: the different realizations of the same phoneme in different phonetics environments are called allophones. 1. complementary distribution: when two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes do not distinguish meaning and occur in different phonetic environments. 2. free variation: if the substitution of one sound does not generate a new word but merely a different sound of the same word, the two sounds can be seen as in free variation. 6 pitch: different frequencies produced by different rates of vibration in sound production. 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 1 页,共 11 页精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 学习必备 欢迎下载7 stress: it refers to the degree of force in producing a syllable. 8 intonation：it involves the occurrence of recurring falling-raising patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either. English is a stress-timed language. 9 tone: tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the different rate of variation of the vocal cords. 10 assimilation: the assimilation rule assimilate one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 1. palatalization: a process by which an originally alveolar sound is moved backward to the palatal area.e.g. did you /di ju:/ /did3u:/ 2. voice assimilation: a sound changes to be like its pronunciation to be like its neighbors in terms of being voiced or voiceless. e.g. metal meddle 3. place assimilation: assimilation that affects place of articulatione.g. green park 4. elision: it refers to the process by which some sounds may simply left out in rapid speech.e.g. /t/ in that person 5. liaison:连音,the pronunciation of an otherwise absent consonant sound at the end of the first of two consecutive words the second of which begins with a vowel sound and follows without pause （11）different sound pattern: 1. alliteration Cvc: the initial consonants are identical 2. assonance cVc: syllables with the same vowel 3. consonance cvC: syllables ending with the same consonant 4. reverse rhyme CVc: syllables sharing the vowel and initial consonant. 5. pararhyme CvC: syllables having the same initial and final consonants grammarU3 ,U4 of 陈； C2 of 丁 lexicon 1 morpheme: the smallest unit of language, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller unit without destroying or dramatically altering its meaning. 2 free morpheme: may occur alone or constitute words by themselves. All monomorrphemes are free morphemes and polymorphemic words, which consist of wholly free morphemes, are compound. 3 bound morpheme: cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least another morpheme to form a word. 4 root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. it is either a free morpheme or bound morpheme. 5 affix: is a collection of the type of morphemes which can be used only when added to another morpheme, so affix is naturally bound. 6 stem: is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. 7 inflectional affix ：do not change the category of the word but only add a grammatical meaning to the stem 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 2 页,共 11 页精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 学习必备 欢迎下载8 derivational affix ：change lexical meaning and the word class 9 acronym: is made up from the first letter of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. 10 initialism: 11 neologism: is a newly coined term, word or phrase, that may be in the process of entering common use, but has not yet been accepted into mainstream language. 12 allomorph: is a variant form of a morpheme. The concept occurs when a unit of meaning can vary in sound without changing meaning. e.g. in English, a past tense morpheme is -ed. It occurs in several allomorphs depending on its phonological environment, assimilating voicing of the previous segment or inserting a schwa when following an alveolar stop as /.d/ or /.d/ when the stem ends with the alveolar stops /t/ or /d/ as /t/ when the stem ends with voiceless phonemes as /d/ elsewhere 13 collocation: defines a sequence of words or terms that co-occur more often than would be expected by chance. e.g. strong tea; powerful computer, but not the other way around 14 idiom: is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning or definition of the words of which it is made.syntax the structure of English 1 sentence pattern 2 hierarchical structure-Immediate Constituent Analysis: bring out syntactic ambiguity 3 surface structureonly one in a single sentence: the visible sentence sequence 4 deep structureimpossibly more than oneambiguous utterance: what we get from IC Analysis 5 labeled tree diagram: 加标记的树形图6 sentence are believed to be generate by two basic types of rules: phrase structureDin p34-49 & transformational rules 7 phrase structure rules: e.g. SNP VP 8 lexical rules: rules indicating the words to be used for constituents 9 particle movement：the direct object if the verb is delayed an adjunct or indirect object, sometime obligatorywhen pronoun act as the object e.g. stand him upstand up him * 10 simple sentence: a sentence containing only one subject-predicate structure 11 coordinate sentence: simple sentence connected by conjunctions, the two sentence have equal status, parataxisDin P56 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 3 页,共 11 页精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 学习必备 欢迎下载12 complex sentence: when one or more clause are embedded in to a main clause to communicate purpose, reasons ,etc 13 endocentric construction: phrase can be replace by one of its immediate constituentslonely policeman by policeman or by a member of the major word-class as one of its immediate constituent the man by John subordinate endocentric construction: only one of the immediate 14 constituents can stand for the whole 15 exocentric construction: phrase cannot be replaced syntactically by any of its immediate constituents 16 generative grammar: attempts to produce a particular type of grammar having explicit system of rules specifying what combinations of basic elements would result in well-formed sentences _ Grammar of English 1 X-words: auxiliaries, modal -seems not confident about your opinion, cannot be used in academic writing. 2 non-finite verbal group: =非谓语结构, to , V-ing, PP past participle 3 particle and phrasal verbs: a. inseparable phrasal verb=verb+ preposition=transitive verb b. seperable phrasal verb=verb+adverbialparticle c. verb+adverbial+preposition=tansitive verb=inseperable phrasal verb 4 sentence pattern/ relation between clause a. parataxis=compound sentencebut, or, yet, and连接 :the relation between clauses are coordinate. b. hypotaxis：1adverbial as hypotactic clause 2indirect quotation as“so”substitution: only for repot, not for fact/ if sth following the verb is an objective complement, it can be replace by a nominal group or a deixis 3non-defining relative clause vs. defining relative clause: to say some characteristics to distinguish the object from similar of the item, as an ones, rankshift complement. c. rankshift: with the help of an includer,defining attributive clause, subjective clause objective clause 5 half-clause: to avoid overuse of conjunctions; 1 prep 2 subject 3 with/without being 6 modifying relations between clauses semanticsthe study of the meaning aspect of language 1 words viewing: universal semantic properties or features P104 2 metalanguage: the language used in signifying the language itself, for example the feature symbol used in componential analysis. HUAMAN,EQUINE,OVINE,BOVINE,PORCINE,CANINE,LEPRI NE,CERVINE,FELINE 3 semantic relations: 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 4 页,共 11 页精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 学习必备 欢迎下载a. synonymous-synonym no pair of words are absolutely interchangeable or synonymous because no two words contain exactly the same number or type of semantic properties. dialectical, evaluationaldepending on situation,registraldepending on emotional, collocationally-resticted b. antonymous-antonymgradable, complementary, converse/relational c. hyponymy-hyponymsuperordinate/umbrella word vs. subordinate d. polysemous: the same form having at least two meaning, which are intrinsically or etymologically related. e. homonymy: homography the same spelling with different pronunciation and distinct meaning homophonythe same pronunciation with different spelling and distinct meaning f. meronymy: part-whole relation 4 sense: words are assigned with some meaning systematically, each being more or less unique in the lexical or grammatical system of language./abstract conceptual 5 reference: the entities a word donates outside the language system./concrete entities 6 semantic field: those belong to the same category fall into the same semantic field. 7 marked/unmarked: In each pair of antonyms that is more commonly used is unmarked-neutral meaning; marked is used when special circumstance calls for it. 8 idiom: opaquethe meaning of the phrase cannot be deduced by combining the meaning of the individual words that make it up/transparent; not subject to change or modification 9 prototype: the item as the best exemplar defining a category, in which all members share the same attribute. 10 prototype theory: a concept is not seen as a set of critical features, but rather in terms of a most typical instance. The advantage of this is that it allows for categories with fuzzy boundaries, rather than binary cuttingsconstitutional analysis. 11a.semantic extensionrhetorical device: metaphor: the description of one thing in terms of anotherabstract concrete and familiar b. c.d.conceptual metaphor: often contains a systematic conceptual metaphor orientational metaphor: has to do with how something is physically located in space ontological metaphor: to treat experience and phenomena as discreet entities. e. metonymy: a kind of substitution in which one thing is used to stand for another f. iconicity: the way the physical form of a language corresponds to the real experience being referred to-e.g. onomatopoeia 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 5 页,共 11 页精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - g. h.学习必备欢迎下载synecdoche: a part used for the whole, etc. radiation: the new meaning is independent of all the rest, and may be traced back to the central signification i. concatenation: a word moves gradually from its original sense as a result of successive semantic changes. 12denotation, connotation, paradigmatic, syntagmaticomitted pragmatics 1 semantic compositionality: the meaning of complex expression is determined by their constituents. 2 recursive syntax: words phrases, and even sentence can be combined in accordance with all sorts of rules 3 linguistic end in pragmatics: how linguistic forms are used to perform social actions 4 social end: how social-cultural factors bear on the use of language 5 co-text: the preceding and the following linguistic items in a given utterance 6 situational context: concerning where and when the communication takes place and also the number and identity of the participants involved. 7 personal deixiscentral personal: current speaker 8 time dexis-central time: the time at which the speaker produces the utterance 9 place deixiscentral place: the location at the utterance time 10discourse dexis- discourse central: the point which the speaker is currently at in the production of his utterance 11social dexis-social center: the speakers social status and rank, to which the status or rank of the addressee is relative 12constative: description of facts or states of affairs 13performative: the saying itself accomplish a certain actione.g. I promise a. the use of first person subject b. simple present tense c. indicative mood, active voice and a performative verb 14speech act: the basic or minimal unit of linguistic communication, can be performing three component act at the same time: a. locutionary act: the act of verbally saying sth b. illocutionary act: the intended act behind saying sth; focus of pragmatic study c. perlocutionary act: the intended effect of an illocutionary act e.g. Jane said to john, “ I am hungry. John leave and come back with some food for Jane. locutionary act: Janes utterance illocutionary act: an implicit request for John to bring some food for her perlocutionary act: John get some food for Jane 15illocutionary speech act