语言学精华重点(刘润清版).doc

Four short words sum up what has lifted most successful individuals above the crowd: a little bit more.-author-date语言学精华重点(刘润清版)(3) arbitrariness: the absence of similarity between the form of a linguistic sign and what it relates to in reality, e.g. the word dog does not look like a dog.语言学精华重点（刘润清版）三个语音学 1 arbitrariness: the absence of similarity between the form of a linguistic sign and what it relates to in reality, e.g. the word dog does not look like a dog. Arbitrariness refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection bet ween a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, for the same animal dog, in English we call it /d0g/, in Chinese as “gou”, but “yilu” in Japanese; it barks wow wow in English but wang wang in Chinese. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack” and “bang” are exceptions, but words like these are relatively few compared with the total number of words in a language.2 duality: the way meaningless elements of language at one level (sounds and letters) combine to form meaningful units (words) at another level.3 phonetics: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.4 pragmatics: a branch of linguistics that studies language in use.5 phonology: the study of the abstract systems underlying the sounds of language.6 syntax: the term used to refer to the structure of sentences and to the study of sentence structure.7 Allophones - the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.In phonetics, an allophone is one of a set of multiple possible spoken sounds (or phones) used to pronounce a single phoneme.1 For example, p (as in pin) and p (as in spin) are allophones for the phoneme /p/ in the English language. Although a phoneme's allophones are all alternative pronunciations for a phoneme, the specific allophones selected in a given situation is often predictable. Changing the allophone used by native speakers for a given phoneme in a specific context usually will not change the meaning of a word but the result may sound non-native or unintelligible. Speakers of a given language usually perceive one phoneme in their language as a single distinctive sound in that language and are "both unaware of and even shocked by" the allophone variations used to pronounce single phonemes.Every time a speech sound is produced for a given phoneme, it will be slightly different from other utterances, even for the same speaker. This has led to some debate over how real, and how universal, phonemes really are (see phoneme for details). Only some of the variation is significant (i.e., detectable or perceivable) to speakers. There are two types of allophones, based on whether a phoneme must be pronounced using a specific allophone in a specific situation, or whether the speaker has freedom to (unconsciously) choose which allophone he or she will use.When a specific allophone (from a set of allophones that correspond to a phoneme) must be selected in a given context (i.e. using a different allophone for a phoneme will cause confusion or make the speaker sound non-native), the allophones are said to be complementary (i.e. the allophones complement each other, and one is not used in a situation where the usage of another is standard). In the case of complementary allophones, each allophone is used in a specific phonetic context and may be involved in a phonological process.In other cases, the speaker is able to select freely from free variant allophones, based on personal habit or preference.8 descriptive approach: the approach of linguistic studies, with which linguists collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language as they are used, not according to some view of how they should be used.9 arbitrariness: the absence of similarity between the form of a linguistic sign and what it relates to in reality, e.g. the word dog does not look like a dog.Arbitrariness refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection bet ween a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, for the same animal dog, in English we call it /d0g/, in Chinese as “gou”, but “yilu” in Japanese; it barks wow wow in English but wang wang in Chinese. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack” and “bang” are exceptions, but words like these are relatively few compared with the total number of words in a language.10 morphology is the study of the internal structure, forms and 9classes of words, while syntax focuses on the structure and ordering of components within a sentence. The major distinction between morphology and syntax is that the former is concerned with the internal composition of a word, while the latter is concerned with the combination of words.11 assimilation: a phonological process whereby a sound becomes phonetically similar (or identical) to a neighboring sound, e.g. a vowel becomes +nasal when followed by a +nasal consonant.12 13 acronym: words which are composed of the rst letter of a series of words and are pronounced as single words. Examples: NATO, radar and yuppy.14 blending: A single new word can be formed by combining two separate forms. Typically, blending is nished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word. For example, brunch is formed by the shortened forms of breakfast and lunch.15 derivation: the formation of new words by adding afxes to other words or morphemes in morphology and word formation.16 AffixPrefix - morphemes that occur only before others, e.g. un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc.Suffix - morphemes that occur only after others, e.g. -ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.17 Compounding is another way to form new words, e.g. landlady rainbow undertake1819 root: the morpheme that remains when all afxes are stripped from a complex word, e.g. system from un- + system + atic + ally. 20 Complementary distribution-allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g. dark l & clear l, aspirated p & unaspirated p. 21 stress: the prominence given to certain sounds in speech. The stresses are placed on the second syllable except for “promise”. We may easily conclude that the verbs usually are stressed on the second syllable.The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word: verb: im5port; in5crease; re5bel; re5cord noun: 5import; 5increase; 5rebel; 5record Word stressSimilar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements: compound: 5blackbird; 5greenhouse; 5hotdog noun phrase: black 5bird; green 5house; hot 5dogWord stressThe meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns:modifier: 5dining-room; 5readingroom; 5sleepingbag doer: sleeping 5baby; swimming 5fish; flying 5planeSentence stressSentence stress-the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed. Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences. He is driving my car. My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday. 22 Syllable representations of the words:Syllable (what is syllable?)Ancient Greek: a unit of speech sound consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one or more than one consonant.Dictionary: word or part of a word which contains a vowel sound or consonant acting as a vowel.The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET, the PEAK, the CODA, e.g. mAn.The peak is the essential part. It is usually formed by a vowel. But l, n and m might also function as peaks as in “ apple, hidden, communism”. 23 Allomorph Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as “dog, bark, cat”,etc. In other instances, there may be some variation, that is, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme, the plural morpheme may be represented by:map-maps sdog-dogs zwatch-watches izmouse-mice aiox-oxen ntooth-teeth sheep-sheepEach of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme. 24 anaphora: a process where a word or phrase (anaphor) refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.25 prototype: what members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexical category, e.g. for some English speakers “cabbage” (rather than, say, “carrot”) might be the prototypical vegetable. prototype theory: a theory of human categorization that was posited by Eleanor Rosch. Following this theory, natural categories are organized according to prototypes which are considered as the most typical or representative of the category. A robin or sparrow is regarded as a prototype of the category of “bird”. People decide whether an entity belongs to a category by comparing that entity with a prototype.26 Minimal pair test or substitution test. Minimal pair test or substitution test is to see whether substituting one sound for 4another results in a different word. If it does, the two sounds represent different phonemes. For example, as to the English word bear, if we substitute p for b, we get the word pear, the two are different words. Then /b/ and /p/ represent different phonemes. Other examples are chunk/junk, ban/bin, bet/beat, ne/vine, side/site, etc.27 lexical gap: the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic eld of a language. For instance, in English we have brother versus sister, son versus daughter, but no separate lexemes for “male” and “female” cousin.28 IC analysis: the approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents. For example, the immediate constituents of “The man bought a car” are the man and bought a car. The immediate constituents of the man are the and man, and so on until no further cuts can be made. The ultimate constituents of “The man bought a car” at the word level are the, man, bought, a, and car.Suffix - morphemes that occur only after others, e.g. -ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.29 cohesion: the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elements of a text. This may be the relationship between different sentences or different parts of a sentence. In the study of discourse, cohesion refers to the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different parts of a text. This may be the relationship between different sentences or different parts of a sentence. It concerns the question of how sentences are explicitly linked together in a discourse by different kinds of overt devices. Such cohesive devices include reference, substitution, ellipses, conjunction and lexical cohesion.30 Recursiveness 根据可计算理论，形式语言的递归性是计算机产生和识别形式语言的基础。从正则语言识别的角度证明了正则语言的识别系统确定有限自动机所识别的语言集是一个递归可枚举集，同时讨论了正则语言的可递归性。有助于进一步研究正则语言的自动产生机制。Based on the theory of computability, the recursiveness of formal language is the base to produce and distinguish formal language by computer. The theorem that the language set distinguished deterministie finite automaton is a recursively enumerable set was proved, and then, the reeursiveness of regular language was analyzed. This study is helpful to research on the manner of automatic production regular language. 31 coherence: the relationship that links the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the sentences in a text. Coherence is the relationship that links the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the sentences in a text. This extract is coherent. All the sentences (questions in fact) are organized around the topic “interview”, and they are arranged from the general to the more specic in a logical order so that the text is easy to follow.32 Reflective meaning is what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.33 According to the semantic analysis of Geoffrey Leech, the associative meaning of an expression has to do with individual mental understandings of the speaker. They, in turn, can be broken up into six sub-types: connotative, collocative, social, affective, reflected and thematic (Mwihaki 2004).The connotative meanings of an expression are the thoughts provoked by a term when in reference to certain entities. Though these meanings may not be strictly implied by relevant definitions, they show up in common or preferred usage regardless. This is not to be confused with what is historically referred to as connotation, which more closely describes rigid definitions of words.Collocative meaning, or "collocation", describes words that regularly appear together in common use (within certain contexts).Social meaning, where words are used to establish relationships between people and to delineate social roles. For example, in Japanese, the suffix "-san" when added to a proper name denotes respect, sometimes indicating that the speaker is subordinate to the listener; while the suffix "-chan" denotes that the speaker thinks the listener is a child or childlike (either for purposes of affection or derision).Affective meaninghas to do with the personal feelings or attitudes of the speaker.Reflected meaninghas to do with when one sense of a particular word affects the understanding and usage of all the other senses of the word.Thematic meaningconcerns itself with how the order of words spoken affects the meaning that is entailed.3435 iconicity: a feature of a language which means that the structure of language reects in some way the structure of experience, that is, the structure of the world, including the perspective imposed on the world by the speaker. Caesars historic words “Veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered)” is a good case to prove the iconicity of order (the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of elements in a linguistic construction).36 Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme Derivational morphemes- the morp