毕业论文外文翻译-刑法.doc
Criminal Law1. General Introduction Criminal law is the body of the law that defines criminal offenses, regulates the apprehension, charging, and trial of suspected offenders,and fixes punishment for convicted persons. Substantive criminal law defines particular crimes, and procedural law establishes rules for the prosecution of crime. In a democratic society, it is the function of the legislative bodies to decide what behavior will be made criminal and what penalties will be attached to violations of the law. Capital punishment may be imposed in some jurisdictions for the most serious crimes. And physical or corporal punishment may still be imposed such as whipping or caning, although these punishments are prohibited in much of the world. A convict may be incarcerated in prison or jail and the length of incarceration may vary from a day to life. Criminal law is a reflection of the society that produce it. In an Islamic theocracy, such as Iran, criminal law will reflect the religious teachings of the Koran; in an Catholic country, it will reflect the tenets of Catholicism. In addition, criminal law will change to reflect changes in society, especially attitude changes. For instance, use of marijuana was once considered a serious crime with harsh penalties, whereas today the penalties in most states are relatively light. As severity of the penalties was reduced. As a society advances, its judgments about crime and punishment change. 2.Elements of a Crime Obviously, different crimes require different behaviors, but there are common elements necessary for proving all crimes. First, the prohibited behavior designated as a crime must be clearly defined so that a reasonable person can be forewarned that engaging in that behavior is illegal. Second, the accused must be shown to have possessed the requisite intent to commit the crime. Third, the state must prove causation. Finally, the state must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant committed the crime. (1) actus reus The first element of crime is the actus reus. Actus is an act or action and reus is a person judicially accused of a crime. Therefore, actus reus is literally the action of a person accused of a crime. A criminal statute must clearly define exactly what act is deemed “guilty”-that is, the exact behavior that is being prohibited. That is done so that all persons are put on notice that if they perform the guilty act, they will be liable for criminal punishment. Unless the actus reus is clearly defined, one might not know whether or not ones behavior is illegal. Actus reus may be accomplished by an action, by threat of action, or exceptionally, by an omission to act, which is a legal duty to act. For example, the act of Cain striking Abel might suffice, or a parents failure to give to a young child also may provide the actus reus for a crime.Where the actus reus is a failure to act, there must be a duty of care. A duty can arise through contract, a voluntary undertaking, a blood relation, and occasionally through ones official position. Duty also can arise from ones own creation of a dangerous situation.(2) mens reaA second element of a crime is mens rea. Mens rea refers to an individuals state of mind when a crime is committed. While actus reus is proven by physical or eyewitness evidence, mens rea is more difficult to ascertain. The jury must determine for itself whether the accused had the necessary intent to commit the act.A lower threshold of mens rea is satisfied when a defendant recognizes an act is dangerous but decides to commit it anyway. This is recklessness. For instance, if Cain tears a gas meter from a wall, and knows this will let flammable gas escape into a neighbors house, he could be liable for poisoning. Courts often consider whether the actor did recognise the danger, or alternatively ought to have recognized a danger (though he did not) is tantamount to erasing intent as a requirement. In this way, the importance of mens rea has been reduced in some areas of the criminal law.Wrongfulness of intent also may vary the seriousness of an offense. A killing committed with specific intent to kill or with conscious recognition that death or serious bodily harm will result, would be murder, whereas a killing affected by reckless acts lacking such a consciousness could be manslaughter.(3) Causation The next element is causation. Often the phrase “but for” is used to determine whether causation has occurred. For example, we might say “Cain caused Abel”, by which we really mean “Cain caused Abels death. ” In other words, but for Cains act, Abel would still be alive.” Causation, then, means “but for” the actions of A, B would not have been harmed. In criminal law, causation is an element that must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt.(4) Proof beyond a Reasonable DoubtIn view of the fact that in criminal cases we are dealing with the life and liberty of the accused person, as well as the stigma accompanying conviction, the legal system places strong limits on the power of the state to convict a person of a crime. Criminal defendants are presumed innocent. The state must overcome this presumption of innocence by proving every element of the offense charged against the defendant beyond a reasonable doubt to the satisfaction of all the jurors. This requirement is the primary way our system minimizes the risk of convicting an innocent person.The state must prove its case within a framework of procedural safeguards that are designed to protect the accused. The states failure to prove any material element of its case results in the accused being acquitted or found not guilty, even though he or she may actually have committed the crime charged. 3. Strict LiabilityIn modern society, some crimes require no more mens rea, and they are known as strict liability offenses. For in stance, under the Road Traffic Act 1988 it is a strict liability offence to drive a vehicle with an alcohol concentration above the prescribed limit.Strict liability can be described as criminal or civil liability notwithstanding the lack mens rea or intent by the defendant. Not all crimes require specific intent, and the threshold of culpability required may be reduced. For example, it might be sufficient to show that a defendant acted negligently, rather than intentionally or recklessly. 1. 概述刑法是规定什么试犯罪,有关犯罪嫌疑人之逮捕、起诉及审判,及对已决犯处以何种刑罚的部门法。刑事实体法是规定犯罪的法律,刑事程序法是规定刑事起诉规则的法律。在一个民主社会中,决定何种行为时犯罪行为且处以何种刑罚是立法机关的职能。在某些法域,死刑可能会被用于最严重的犯罪行为。而诸如鞭刑或者笞刑之类的身体刑或者肉刑仍可能被运用,尽管世界上绝大多数国家和地区已经废止了这些刑罚。已决犯可能被处以监禁刑,而刑期短则一天长则一生。刑法是制定该法律之社会的一面镜子。在伊斯兰教国家(如伊朗),刑法能反映出古兰经的教义;在天主教国家中,刑法可能反映天主教的教义。此外,刑法的内容会不断变化,以反映社会的变化,特别是社会观点的变化。例如,吸食大麻曾经被视为严重的犯罪行,曾被处以重罚,而今天,大多数国家对此行为的处罚相对较轻。随着公众对吸食大麻的容忍度的增加,处罚的严厉程度也随之降低。随着社会的发展,社会对犯罪行为的处决和处罚也会随之改变。 2.犯罪构成要件显而易见的是,构成犯罪的行为形式各异,但罪名的成立是要有一些共同的要件的。第一,犯罪行为必须是法律明文禁止的,如此,普通正常之人才会知道,从事什么样的行为时犯法的。第二,检方须证明被告人据有犯罪意图。第三,检方须证明因果关系的存在。最后,检方证明被告人犯罪的证据须达到排除合理怀疑的标准。(1) 犯罪行为 犯罪构成的第一个要件是犯罪行为。Actus 是指行动或行为,reus 是指被依法指控犯有某种罪行的人。因此,它们的字面意思是被指控犯罪之人的行为。任何一部刑事制定法都必须清楚且精确地规定什么样的邪行为构成犯罪,即到达什么样的行为是被法律禁止的行为。如此,所以的人才得以知悉,如果实施了某一犯罪行为,他们将即会受到刑事处罚。除非法律明确规定了何种行为属犯罪行为,否则谁都不可能知道某种行为是否犯法。行为人的某一积极作为、构成威胁的行为或未能履行法定义务的不作为,均可构成犯罪行为的要件。例如,该隐击中亚伯的行为即足以构成这一要件,家长未能向幼子提供食物的,亦可能构成某一犯罪的要件。在不作为构成犯罪行为的情况下,必须存在一个主意义务。这种义务可以产生于契约、自愿的承诺、血源关系,偶尔也产生于工作特性。该种义务也可能产生于某人自己造成的危险状况。 (2)犯罪意图犯罪构成的第二个要件是犯罪意图。犯罪意图是指行为人犯罪时的心理状态。犯罪行为可通过物证或者目击证人来证明,而犯罪意图则难以确定。陪审团须独立判断被告人是否确有实施犯罪想的必要意图。凡被告人认识到行为的危险性,但仍然决定去做这种行为的,即认定其具有一种较低标准的犯罪意图。此即为放任的心理状态。例如,该隐从墙上将煤气表扯下,并且知道这将使可燃的煤气逸入邻居的房间,则该隐可能要对造成的煤气中毒承担责任。法庭通常会考虑,行为人是否认识到了危险,或者说,是否应该认识到了这种风险。当然,仅要求某人本应该认识到危险(而事实上他并没有认识到),这等同于取消了对犯罪意图的要求。这样,在刑法的一些领域中,犯罪意图的重要性就降低了。意图的不正当性还可能改变某一犯罪行为的严重性。具有特定意图的杀害,或者意识到将导致死亡或者严重的身体伤害的杀害,属于谋杀罪而因放任行为造成的杀人罪可能是非预谋杀人罪。 (3)因果关系 因果关系式另外一个构成要件。通常人们会使用若非-则无短语去决定是否具有因果关系。例如,我们可能会说,该隐杀死了亚伯,在这句话中,我们要表达的真实意思是,该隐引起了亚伯的死亡。换言之,若非该隐的行为,亚伯本应继续活着。那么,因果关系的意思是:若非A的行为,B本不应受到伤害。在刑法中,因果关系是一个必须在排除合理怀疑的基础上证明的要件。 (4)排除合理怀疑的证明标准刑事案件的结果往往事关被告人的生命和自由,也包括定罪而来的坏名声。考虑到这一事实,对于检方,旨在给嫌疑人定罪的这一权力而言,法律作出许多严格的限制。刑事被告人是被推定无罪的。检方必须对被告人所被指控罪名的每一构成要件都排除了合理怀疑,并达到了让所有陪审员满意的程度,才能推翻无罪推定。这就是美国法律保证清白之人入罪风险最小化的主要方法。检方须在保障被告人的程序框架内证明其提出的观点。检方如不能证明其构成其观点的任何一个重要要件的,被告人只能是被无罪释放或被宣告无罪,尽管他或者她可能犯下了被指控的罪行。 3. 严格责任在现代社会,一些罪名不要求犯罪意图要件。它们被称为严格责任犯罪。例如,根据1988年道路交通法,在酒精浓度超过规定限额的情况下驾车,就是一种严格责任犯罪。严格责任可以被规定为刑事或民事责任,尽管被告人不具有犯罪意图或目的。并不是所以的犯罪都要求特定的犯罪意图,所以认定被告人有罪的门槛有可能降低。例如,证明被告人的行为存在过失即可,则无需证明故意或者放任。五分钟搞定5000字毕业论文外文翻译,你想要的工具都在这里!在科研过程中阅读翻译外文文献是一个非常重要的环节,许多领域高水平的文献都是外文文献,借鉴一些外文文献翻译的经验是非常必要的。由于特殊原因我翻译外文文献的机会比较多,慢慢地就发现了外文文献翻译过程中的三大利器:Google“翻译”频道、金山词霸(完整版本)和CNKI“翻译助手"。具体操作过程如下: 1.先打开金山词霸自动取词功能,然后阅读文献; 2.遇到无法理解的长句时,可以交给Google处理,处理后的结果猛一看,不堪入目,可是经过大脑的再处理后句子的意思基本就明了了; 3.如果通过Google仍然无法理解,感觉就是不同,那肯定是对其中某个“常用单词”理解有误,因为某些单词看似很简单,但是在文献中有特殊的意思,这时就可以通过CNKI的“翻译助手”来查询相关单词的意思,由于CNKI的单词意思都是来源与大量的文献,所以它的吻合率很高。 另外,在翻译过程中最好以“段落”或者“长句”作为翻译的基本单位,这样才不会造成“只见树木,不见森林”的误导。四大工具: 1、Google翻译: google,众所周知,谷歌里面的英文文献和资料还算是比较详实的。我利用它是这样的。一方面可以用它查询英文论文,当然这方面的帖子很多,大家可以搜索,在此不赘述。回到我自己说的翻译上来。下面给大家举个例子来说明如何用吧比如说“电磁感应透明效应”这个词汇你不知道他怎么翻译,首先你可以在CNKI里查中文的,根据它们的关键词中英文对照来做,一般比较准确。 在此主要是说在google里怎么知道这个翻译意思。大家应该都有词典吧,按中国人的办法,把一个一个词分着查出来,敲到google里,你的这种翻译一般不太准,当然你需要验证是否准确了,这下看着吧,把你的那支离破碎的翻译在google里搜索,你能看到许多相关的文献或资料,大家都不是笨蛋,看看,也就能找到最精确的翻译了,纯西式的!我就是这么用的。 2、CNKI翻译: CNKI翻译助手,这个网站不需要介绍太多,可能有些人也知道的。主要说说它的有点,你进去看看就能发现:搜索的肯定是专业词汇,而且它翻译结果下面有文章与之对应(因为它是CNKI检索提供的,它的翻译是从文献里抽出来的),很实用的一个网站。估计别的写文章的人不是傻子吧,它们的东西我们可以直接拿来用,当然省事了。网址告诉大家,有兴趣的进去看看,你们就会发现其乐无穷!还是很值得用的。 3、网路版金山词霸(不到1M): 4、有道在线翻译:翻译时的速度:这里我谈的是电子版和打印版的翻译速度,按个人翻译速度看,打印版的快些,因为看电子版本一是费眼睛,二是如果我们用电脑,可能还经常时不时玩点游戏,或者整点别的,导致最终SPPEED变慢,再之电脑上一些词典(金山词霸等)在专业翻译方面也不是特别好,所以翻译效果不佳。在此本人建议大家购买清华大学编写的好像是国防工业出版社的那本英汉科学技术词典,基本上挺好用。再加上网站如:google CNKI翻译助手,这样我们的翻译速度会提高不少。具体翻译时的一些技巧(主要是写论文和看论文方面) 大家大概都应预先清楚明白自己专业方向的国内牛人,在这里我强烈建议大家仔细看完这些头上长角的人物的中英文文章,这对你在专业方向的英文和中文互译水平提高有很大帮助。 我们大家最蹩脚的实质上是写英文论文,而非看英文论文,但话说回来我们最终提高还是要从下大工夫看英文论文开始。提到会看,我想它是有窍门的,个人总结如下: 1、把不同方面的论文分夹存放,在看论文时,对论文必须做到看完后完全明白(你重视的论文);懂得其某部分讲了什么(你需要参考的部分论文),在看明白这些论文的情况下,我们大家还得紧接着做的工作就是把论文中你觉得非常巧妙的表达写下来,或者是你论文或许能用到的表达摘记成本。这个本将是你以后的财富。你写论文时再也不会为了一些表达不符合西方表达模式而烦恼。你的论文也降低了被SCI或大牛刊物退稿的几率。不信,你可以试一试 2、把摘记的内容自己编写成检索,这个过程是我们对文章再回顾,而且是对你摘抄的经典妙笔进行梳理的重要阶段。你有了这个过程。写英文论文时,将会有一种信手拈来的感觉。许多文笔我们不需要自己再翻译了。当然前提是你梳理的非常细,而且中英文对照写的比较详细。 3、最后一点就是我们往大成修炼的阶段了,万事不是说成的,它是做出来的。写英文论文也就像我们小学时开始学写作文一样,你不练笔是肯定写不出好作品来的。所以在此我鼓励大家有时尝试着把自己的论文强迫自己写成英文的,一遍不行,可以再修改。最起码到最后你会很满意。呵呵,我想我是这么觉得的。