ON EUPHEMISM委婉语英语论文.doc
ON EUPHEMISMAbstract Researches on euphemism that belongs to the area of indirect speech, will certainly be helpful to the correct comprehension and application of indirect speech. This paper analyses five characteristics of euphemism, namely, universality, culture specificity, re-symbolism, obscurity and beautification. And it also analyses the general reasons why people sometimes resort to euphemisms and expounds the phonetic means and semantic means people usually adopt in euphemizing.Key words: euphemism; characteristics; reason; device论委婉语摘要 间接交流中的委婉语的研究，必定对间接交流的理解和运用都很有帮助。本篇论文分析了委婉语的五个特点：广泛性，文化针对性，再替性，晦涩性和美化性。同时也分析了人们运用委婉语的原因以及在委婉语中用到的语音和语义方法。关键词：委婉语；特点；原因；方式ON EUPHEMISM1.IntroductionEuphemism is defined in Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English as "the use of a pleasanter, less direct name of something thought to be unpleasant." The New Edition of the Oxford Concise Dictionary defines euphemism as "substitution of mild or vague expression for harsh or direct one;expression thus substituted."In Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary , the definition of euphemism reads," substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant."2.Characteristics of EuphemismEuphemism, as a language phenomenon, has some special characteristics. To succeed in learning a language or associating in the language with the native speakers, learners of the language should pay much attention to the following features of euphemism.2.1 UniversalityIn almost all cultures there are certain notions or things strongly forbidden by social customs.That is, there are taboos in almost all countries. Generally people try to avoid mentioning the taboos directly. When the taboos have to be referred to , it is likely that people tend to substitute expressions that sound better. 2.2Culture specificityThe universal existence of euphemism in languages doesn't mean that euphemisms are identical in different languages. Euphemism has close relevance to culture. What is necessary to be euphemized in one culture may not be necessary to be euphemized in another. For example, the questions about age, one's marital status or prices of one's belongings, although inoffensive to Chinese, should be avoided when conversing with English-speaking people.2.3 Re-symbolismAs we all know from the above definitions, euphemism is substitution of one expression for another. That is to say, euphemism is a re-symbolism of things, ideas, or events already symbolized with precision in mind. The re-symbolizing produces a distance from the new expression to the crude expression(taboo words). As a result, it produces a distance from the new expressions to the things, ideas, or events they refer to. In spite of the distance, euphemisms should be relevant to the taboos themselves. That is, the re-symbolism should provide clues to catch the intended meaning of taboos as the crude expressions do and at the same time, the re-symbolism should sound indirect or roundabout or pleasanter.2.4 Obscurity Euphemism, as a re-symbolizing of things, ideas or events already symbolized with precision in mind, somewhat overlooks precision and leads to semantic obscurity. For example, death is the precise word to mean the creatures or plants stop living, but people for whatever reason avoid mentioning the term and take pains to substitute it with terms, such as depart from the world forever, fall asleep, pass away, breath one's last, pay one's debt to nature,etc.Although these expressions are indirect and ambiguous;people also tend to use the obscure terms such as senior citizens, advanced in age, elderly to refer to old. Obscure is a basic feature of euphemism. Without obscurity, euphemisms will lose their euphemistic value. Obscurity is a hallmark of all euphemisms.2.5 BeautificationBeautification is another characteristics of euphemism. Generally speaking, taboo words sound unpleasant ,rude and offensive, so people substitute them with euphemisms that sound pleasant, polite and harmless. For example, a garbage collector is described as a sanitary engineer in English; a cleaner is called as "城市美容师" in Chinese, a military invasion and defeat are respectively beautified as a rescue mission and an incomplete success. People use euphemism to beautify the terms and make them sound pleasanter and less direct.3.Why people use euphemismsPsychologically people are in need of euphemism. Generally speaking, people desire to be safe, happy,healthy and lucky. And at the same time, people fear something. They fear disease,death,old age, poverty and any sort of disability; they fear supernatural forces that, they suppose, may come from religion and superstition;they fear all the other negative sides of their life. These negative things inevitably exist around them and form the taboos in their life. In coping with them, people choose to avoid being contacted with them and even in language they try not to mention them.When they have to be mentioned, people would resort to euphemisms instead of them. Thus, people would psychologically feel as if they were not mentioned. Using euphemisms gives people a feeling that they are some distance to what they fear, and resorting to euphemisms seems to be a guarantee of their safety, happiness,health,and good luck.Besides the psychological need, there is a social need for people to use euphemism. As we know that in any culture there are certain notions or things strongly forbidden by social customs. Once they are acknowledged by the society, a tacit convention to euphemize them is formed among all the members in the society.To follow the convention and to express the taboos in a roundabout way become a rule for people to obey. If one doesn't follow the convention and doesn't euphemize the taboos, the offensiveness, the unpleasantness and the rudeness and the taboo words one use will certainly make him hurt others' feeling and plunge himself into an embarrassment and eventually make him feel somewhat isolate from the society. Sometimes, although the topics in communication may have no relevance to taboos, people will use euphemisms to avoid conflicts, to be polite and to meet other social needs. So resorting to euphemism in social life is a social need or even a social pressure you have to give in to. In communication with others, euphemisms can help people form a positive communicative atmosphere to establish harmonious social relationships and eventually to obtain the communication goals. 4. How people do in euphemizingThere are various methods people can adopt in euphemizing such gestures and facial expressions ,but people constitute euphemisms mainly by phonetic and semantic devices.4.1 Phonetic means Mainly there are two phonetic devices to get euphemistic effect. One is unstressing, another is sound changing.Unstressing is a very natural and usual device to achieve euphemistic effect. A child with certain common sense may lower his voice and say to his mother"I want to pee-pee."when a guest is present. People generally don't want to speak loudly and clearly concerning things, ideas or events that may cause unpleasantness or embarrassment.Possibly it is because unstressing can easily obscure the unpleasant things that people consciously or unconsciously resort to unstressing in euphemizing.Changing the original sound may also play in keeping some distance to the original indelicate language, and as a result, serve the purpose of euphemizing. There are many ways to change the sound in euphemizing, such as abbreviation, reduplication, and diminutive ,etc. For example, ladies'(for ladies' room ) and W.C (for water closet)are abbreviations; Pee-pee(for piss) is reduplication; heinie( for hind end that refers to the buttocks) is a diminutive.4.2Semantic means Abstraction. The process of abstraction may sift meaning to reach relative pleasantness. For example, the euphemism untruth(for lie) is conceived through a process of abstraction.Ellipsis. Ellipsis can serve the function of reducing the directness of meaning, so sometimes it is employed in euphemizing. For instance, the euphemistic expression expecting is substitute for expecting for a baby. Circumlocution. Through circumlocution an expression may sound roundabout and indirect. For example, being the big house(for be in prison),lay off(for dismiss) and out of pocket(for penniless).5. ConclusionLinguistic indirectness has long been one of the focuses pragmatic researches. And euphemism belongs to the area of indirect speech.Researchers on euphemism will certainly be helpful to the comprehension and application of indirect speech.This paper is only a general idea of euphemism,just as a Chinese idiom has put it :“抛砖引玉”,it aims to evoke worthier studies on euphemism.Bibliography何自然，语用学概论M.长沙：湖南教育出版社，1998冯翠华，英语修辞学M.北京：商馆印书馆，1987胡文仲，文化与交际C.北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1994张全，应用语言学J,曲靖师范学院学报2004金惠康，跨文化交际翻译M，北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，20031.爱不释手fondle admiringly.2.百闻不如一见（眼见为实） Seeing is believing.3.比上不足比下有余 worse off than some, better off than many; to fall short of the best, but be better than the worst. 4.笨鸟先飞 A slow sparrow should make an early start. 5.不眠之夜 white night 6.不以物喜不以己悲 not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personnal losses 7.不遗余力 spare no effort; go all out; do one's best 8.不打不成交 No discord, no concord. 9.拆东墙补西墙 rob Peter to pay Paul 10.辞旧迎新 bid farewell to the old and usher in the new; ring out the old year and ring in the new 11.大事化小小事化了 try first to make their mistake sound less serious and then to reduce it to nothing at all 12.大开眼界 open one's eyes; broaden one's horizon; be an eye-opener 13.国泰民安 The country flourishes and people live in peace.14.过犹不及 going too far is as bad as not going far enough; beyond is as wrong as falling short; too much is as bad as too little 15.功夫不负有心人 Everything comes to him who waits. 16.好了伤疤忘了疼 once on shore, one prays no more 17.好事不出门恶事传千里 Good news never goes beyond the gate, while bad news spread far and wide. 18.和气生财 Harmony brings wealth. 19.活到老学到老 One is never too old to learn. 20.既往不咎 let bygones be bygones 21.金无足赤人无完人 Gold can't be pure and man can't be perfect. 22.金玉满堂 Treasures fill the home. 23.脚踏实地 be down-to-earth 24.脚踩两只船 sit on the fence 25.君子之交淡如水 the friendship between gentlemen is as pure as crystal; a hedge between keeps friendship green 26.老生常谈陈词滥调 cut and dried, cliché 27.礼尚往来 Courtesy calls for reciprocity. 28.留得青山在不怕没柴烧 Where there is life, there is hope. 29.马到成功 achieve immediate victory; win instant success 30.名利双收 gain in both fame and wealth 31.茅塞顿开 be suddenly enlightened 32.没有规矩不成方圆 Nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards. 33.每逢佳节倍思亲 On festive occasions more than ever one thinks of one's dear ones far away.It is on the festival occasions when one misses his dear most. 34.谋事在人成事在天 The planning lies with man, the outcome with Heaven. Man proposes, God disposes. 35.弄巧成拙 be too smart by half; Cunning outwits itself 36.拿手好戏 masterpiece 37.赔了夫人又折兵 throw good money after bad 38.抛砖引玉 a modest spur to induce others to come forward with valuable contributions; throw a sprat to catch a whale 39.破釜沉舟 cut off all means of retreat；burn ones own way of retreat and be determined to fight to the end40.抢得先机 take the preemptive opportunities 41.巧妇难为无米之炊 If you have no hand you can't make a fist. One can't make bricks without straw.42.千里之行始于足下 a thousand-li journey begins with the first step-the highest eminence is to be gained step by step 43.前事不忘后事之师 Past experience, if not forgotten, is a guide for the future. 44.前人栽树后人乘凉 One generation plants the trees in whose shade another generation rests.One sows and another reaps. 45.前怕狼后怕虎 fear the wolf in front and the tiger behind hesitate in doing something 46.强龙难压地头蛇 Even a dragon (from the outside) finds it hard to control a snake in its old haunt - Powerful outsiders can hardly afford to neglect local bullies. 47.强强联手 win-win co-operation 48.瑞雪兆丰年 A timely snow promises a good harvest. 49.人之初性本善 Man's nature at birth is good. 50.人逢喜事精神爽 Joy puts heart into a man. 51.人海战术 huge-crowd strategy 52.世上无难事只要肯攀登 Where there is a will, there is a way. 53.世外桃源 a fictitious land of peace away from the turmoil of the world; 54.死而后已 until my heart stops beating 55.岁岁平安 Peace all year round. 56.上有天堂下有苏杭 Just as there is paradise in heaven, while there are Suzhou and Hangzhou on earth 57.塞翁失马焉知非福 Misfortune may be an actual blessing. 58.三十而立 A man should be independent at the age of thirty.At thirty, a man should be able to think for himself. 59.升级换代 updating and upgrading (of products)60.四十不惑 Life begins at forty. 61.谁言寸草心报得三春晖 Such kindness of warm sun, can't be repaid by grass. 62.水涨船高 When the river rises, the boat floats high. 63.时不我待Time and tide wait for no man. 64.杀鸡用牛刀break a butterfly on the wheel 65.实事求是seek truth from facts; be practical and realistic; be true to facts 66.说曹操,曹操到Talk of the devil and he comes. 67.实话实说speak the plain truth; call a spade a spade; tell it as it is 68.实践是检验真理的唯一标准Practice is the sole criterion for testing truth. 69.山不在高，有仙则名'No matter how high the mountain is, its name will spread far and wide if there is a fairy; ' 70.韬光养晦hide one's capacities and bide one's time 71.糖衣炮弹sugar-coated bullets 72.天有不测风云Anything unexpected may happen. a bolt from the blue 73.团结就是力量Unity is strength. 74.“跳进黄河洗不清” eve if one jumped into the Yellow River, one can not wash oneself clean-there's nothing one can do to clear one's name.75.歪风邪气unhealthy practices and evil phenomena 76.物以类聚，人以群分Birds of a feather flock together. 77.往事如风'The past has vanished (from memory) like wind.; What in past, is pas 78.望子成龙hold high hopes for one's child 79.屋漏又逢连阴雨Misfortunes never come singly. When it rains it pours. 80.文韬武略military expertise; military strategy 81.唯利是图draw water to one's mill 82.无源之水,无本之木water without a source, and a tree without roots 83.无中生有make create something out of nothing 84.无风不起浪There are no waves without wind. There's no smoke without fire.85.徇私枉法bend the law for the benefit of relatives or friends 86.新官上任三把火a new broom sweeps clean 87.虚心使人进步,骄傲使人落后Modesty helps one go forward, whereas conceit makes one lag behind. 88. 蓄势而发accumulate strength for a take-off 89.心想事成May all your wish come true 90.心照不宣have a tacit understanding; give tacit consent; tacit understanding 91.先入为主First impressions are firmly entrenched. 92.先下手为强catch the ball before the bound 93.像热锅上的蚂蚁like an ant on a hot pan 94.现身说法warn people by taking oneself as an example 95.息事宁人pour oil on troubled waters 96.喜忧参半mingled hope and fear 97.循序渐进step by step 98.一路平安，一路顺风speed somebody on their way; speed the parting guest 99.严以律己,宽以待人be strict with oneself and len
