1140611119于佳慧-委婉语的产生与交际功能[精选].doc

摘 要委婉语是一个语言学概念，同时也是一种文化现象，长久以来一直受到人们的关注。委婉语是一种间接的表达方式，即用一种迂回的、温和的、令人愉悦的表达代替那些直接却令人不悦的说法。委婉语的起源可以追溯到遥远的古代，主要体现在宗教起源和社会阶层起源。从社会功能方面来讲，委婉语可以避免伤害他人感情，无论是在年龄和健康、教育、人的外表方面的礼貌功能，在死亡、社会惯例、宗教方面的回避功能，还是在商业、政府和军队、社会问题方面的掩饰功能。对英语委婉语的社会功能的详细分析可以使英语学习者更好地把握英语委婉语，从而正确运用英语委婉语达到跨文化交际的目的。关键词：英语委婉语；起源；交际功能AbstractEuphemism, as a cultural phenomenon as well as a linguistic concept, has attracted peoples attention for a long time. Euphemism means indirect ways of expression. That is to say, those blunt, harsh or direct expressions are replaced by using the pleasant, mild or roundabout ones. The origin of euphemism have a long history, which can be traced back to distant ancient times. They are mainly illustrated in terms of the origin of religion and origin of social classes. In terms of social function, the euphemism has the function of politeness which is to avoid hurting peoples feeling in age, health, education and peoples appearance. It has the function of evasion which is to avoid hurting peoples feeling in death, social convention and religion. It also has the function of concealment which is to avoid hurting peoples feeling in government, military, commerce and social problems. Detailed analysis will make English learners better grasp English euphemism, so that to use English euphemism correctly to make intercultural communication more successful.Key words：English euphemism; origin; social functionContents摘 要IAbstractIIIntroduction1Chapter One Overview of Euphemism21.1 Definition of Euphemism21.2 Classifications of Euphemism41.2.1 Positive Euphemism and Negative Euphemism41.2.2 Conscious Euphemism and Unconscious Euphemism5Chapter Two Origin and Development of Euphemism62.1 Origin of Euphemism62.1.1 Origin of Religion62.1.2 Origin of Social Classes62.2 Development of Euphemism7Chapter Three Social Function of Euphemism83.1 Function of Evasion83.1.1 Euphemism of Death83.1.2 Euphemism of Social Convention93.1.3 Euphemism of Religion93.2 Function of Politeness103.2.1 Euphemism of Age and Health103.2.2 Euphemism of Education113.2.3 Euphemism of Peoples Appearance113.3 Function of Concealment123.3.1 Euphemism in Commerce123.3.2 Euphemism in Government and Military133.3.3 Euphemism of Social Problems13Chapter Four The Significance and Suggestion of Studying Euphemism154.1 Significance of Studying Euphemism154.2 Suggestion of Studying Euphemism16Conclusion17Bibliography18Acknowledgments19IntroductionEuphemism is a common-used language device. In fact, euphemism is an almost indispensable part of everyday speech. In our current “polite society”, as the interaction among people plays an increasingly significant role in daily life, the tendency of resorting to euphemism becomes more and more obvious, for it enables us to express ourselves freely in some awkward situation. This topic is to probe into the practical use of English euphemism nowadays, especially the enormous actual examples in various domains such as politics, education and so on. A close study of euphemism will enable on to enhance English reading, appreciation and application abilities. In linguistics, analysis of English euphemism as a part of language from a linguistic point of view, which discusses its definition and classifications. Plenty of examples are served to demonstrate the above-mentioned linguistic aspects. And next to examines the Origin of euphemism. The origin of euphemism be analyzed from religion and social class.As the main body of this paper, social function of euphemism probe respectively into the evasion, politeness and concealment function of English euphemism. Each section deals with one kind of function. Evasion function of death, social convention and religion is applied to pragmatic social function. The function of politeness involves age and health, education and peoples appearance; the function of concealment consist of commerce, government and military, social problems. The three functions are reasons which lead to the social function of euphemism. The most important three sections supply a relatively systematic and sound explanation of the topic of this thesis.The signification of my study and ventures to propose some suggestions for English teachers and learners in China. At last, the thesis reaches the conclusion, which summarizes the previous four chapters and also appropriate use of English euphemism and cross-cultural communication.Chapter One Overview of EuphemismAs a general introduction to English euphemism, there are two aspects: definition of euphemism and classifications of euphemism. Euphemism can be classified into two parts in general, and also there are some other kinds of divisions to euphemism from different points of view.1.1 Definition of EuphemismThe word euphemism is originated from the Greek word “euphemisos”, in which “eu” meaning “good or sounding well”, the stem “pheme” meaning “speech or saying”. Its verb form “euphemize” means “to speak with good words or in a pleasant manner”, while the word “euphemism” means “the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend of suggest something unpleasant”, therefore there are “words of good omen or good speech”. Some learned men also argue that innuendo should be included in the domain of euphemism. The explanation of innuendo in Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary is “indirect reference (usually suggesting something bad or discreditable about somebody)” and “Being indirect or suggesting” is the feature of the word innuendo, which is according to the features of euphemism.In English, the first learned man who uses the word “euphemism” come from the western country. His name was George Blunt. And as early as in 1680s, he had defined euphemism as the following: “Euphemism is a good of favorable interpretation of a bad word”. The definition given by some linguists afterwards is “Substituting an inoffensive one, thereby evasion the truth using in words”. According to Allan and Burridge, the definition of the euphemism is like this: A euphemism is used as an alternative to an unwelcome expression, in order to avoid possible loss of face: either ones own face or through going offense, that of the audience or of some third party. Here “dis preferred expression” may be fearsome, tabooed, disagreeable, disgraceful or for some other possible reasons that speakers cannot or do not intend to make use of some certain expressions directly under some circumstances. While in Websters New World Thesaurus, it is described as “mock modesty, metaphoric speech, verbal extenuation word in verbal good taste, over delicacy of speech, affected refinement of language”. In China, the first learned man defining euphemism by Chen Wangdao. In his An introduction to Rhetoric, it says “Euphemism is one kind of figures of speech”, saying something indirectly but suggesting or substituting with roundabout and implied words or even metaphorical expression.The following are some others influential definitions:(1)Substitution, restraint, softened expression, mock modesty, metaphorical speech, verbal extenuation, word in verbal good taste, over delicacy of speech, affected refinement of language.(2)Mild or vague periphrastic expression as a substitute for blunt precision of disagreeable truth. (3)Used as an alternative to a dis preferred expression, in order to avoid possible loss of face: either ones own face, or through giving offense, that of the audience, or of some third party. (4)Use of pleasant, mild or indirect words or phrases in place of more accurate or direct ones.Based on the above definitions, we may find that all of them share one basic conception: Euphemism is a mild, indirect, roundabout expression used by people to avoid directness, harshness and unpleasantness.In spite of all the above definitions of euphemism, there are still some limitations in terms of the euphemism study. Their limitations lie in the fact that the learned men have not explained clearly about the scope of the euphemism. That is, which range of the euphemism should be studied. And the close relationship between language, culture and euphemism as well as the pragmatic function of euphemism are not discussed in their definition. We may see to a certain extent that they ignored the fact that euphemism is not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a cultural phenomenon. In other words, euphemism is cultural loaded.Euphemism, in a narrow sense, only stands for euphemistic words and phrases. In a broad sense, euphemism includes all the euphemistic ways of expression. Based on the previous definitions of euphemism, euphemism will be redefined as follows: Euphemism is both a figure of speech and an indirect speech act. People use it to produce extra meaning by violating the cooperative principle and observing the politeness principle and the face theory. Euphemism is function as a way of communication which is precede by using indirect, polite, modest, mild or pleasant expression to substitute the direct, harsh, blunt, unpleasant or vulgar expression via verbal or non-verbal ways in order to achieve a successful communication.1.2 Classifications of EuphemismDue to the diversity of language, and different linguistic theory with various standards, English euphemism is classified into different types. Generally accepted theory of classification is Rawsons theory that categorizes euphemism into positive euphemism and negative euphemism, or conscious euphemism and unconscious euphemism.1.2.1 Positive Euphemism and Negative EuphemismThe Positive euphemism often exaggerates and overstates, sometimes using hyperbole rhetoric, making the euphemized referents seem gorgeous and more magnificent, adding the pleasant semantic feature to the referent. It is used as substitution for a disagreeable word, such as “golden age clubs” used to refer to clubs for old people, “the developing countries” indicating the countries that are left behind, using “black man” to substitute “negro” to avoid racism, and using “messed up” to replace “screwed up”, and so on and so forth. At the beginning of 20th century, in the western industrialized countries, the relation between the laborers and the employers was in a tension, and strikes became a serious social problem. In order to ease the contradiction, “strike” was referred to as “industrial dispute”, “boycott classes” as “student unrest” and “drop” as “adjustment downward” in the mass media.Negative euphemism, which is also called traditional euphemism deflates, diminishes and offsets the power of tabooed terms and otherwise eradicating from the language everything that people prefer not to deal with directly. Many tabooed subjects such as sex, disease, disabilities, death and so on, should be euphemized. For example, there are many euphemistic expressions for death like “to breathe ones last”, and “to be called to God”. In the last 1950s, in some socialistic countries, its common to find many people say “go to see Marx” instead of died.1.2.2 Conscious Euphemism and Unconscious EuphemismOn the basis whether people think of their original meaning or not, euphemism could also be classified into conscious euphemism and unconscious euphemism.All euphemism, whether positive or negative, may be used either unconsciously or consciously. In this way euphemism are divided into “unconscious euphemism” and “conscious euphemism” by Rawson. Unconscious euphemism refers to those of which original denotations have been forgotten by people for a long time. For example, the word “cemetery” (from the Greek word for “sleeping place or dormitory”) serves as a euphemism for “graveyard”. The word “indisposition” is a euphemistic expression for “disease”.Due to their long-time use, users are not conscious of its original meanings. Conscious euphemism is different. They often lead to double-thinking, however. They form a kind of code. The euphemism stands for something else, and everyone pretends that the “something else” does not exist. The intention may seem to be noble. For example, in a dinner party, a lady stood up and said that she wanted to powder her nose, which actually means she wanted to go to the toilet. In another case President Ronald Reagan, who had promised the American public to cut taxes, called for revenue enhancements instead of tax increases when he was faced with the realities of national finances. It is this characteristic of conscious euphemismtheir ability to soften the worlds hard edgesthat also makes them attractive to those people and institutions that have something to hide, who find it convenient to lie about what they are doing.Chapter Two Origin and Development of Euphemism On the basis of learned men researches, euphemism is a common phenomenon for the language users. It is an important way to improve interpersonal relationship. By tracing euphemism religious and social classes origin, it is not difficult for us to find the origin of euphemism.2.1 Origin of EuphemismAs a common language phenomenon, euphemism has existed in many languages for a long time. Originating from language taboo, euphemism came into being due to certain religious and social class reasons.2.1.1 Origin of ReligionEuphemism originated from taboo in the early period of time. In the remote past, when the society was uncivilized and primitive, people could not understand natural phenomena, so they worshiped and feared the power of the supernatural. At that time, people believed that everything was alive with spirit, capable of bringing down blessings and misfortune; and language was of no exception. That is, language was regarded to be magic as it could bring disaster and happiness. If someone did something against this belief, he would be punished and suffered.In the west, Christianity is widely accepted. The doctrine of Christianity has become the foundation of the western morality and value judgment. That is, the western civilization is shaped largely by religious belief of Christianity. Bible as the overall moral standards base of the whole western culture, has clearly stated, “Thou shaft not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh his name in vain”.2.1.2 Origin of Social ClassesIn English, euphemism mainly derives from middle-class people. Upper-class people neednt or unwillingly weigh every word when communicating with others due to their stable and noble social classes. Poor people are at the bottom of the society, and most them lack knowledge, so they dont know the important of using euphemism much less how to use euphemism, moreover, they have to say. However, the middle-class people struggle to improve