The-offshoring-of-America.docx

如有侵权，请联系网站删除，仅供学习与交流The-offshoring-of-America【精品文档】第 24 页9-708-030 R E V: APR I L 22, 2008 RI CH A R D H . K. VI E T OR JAN W . R I V K IN JU LI A N A S E M I NER I OThe Offshoring of AmericaWhen a good or service is produced at lower cost in another country, it makes sense to import it rather than to produce it domestically. This allows the United States to devote its resources to more productive purposes. The Council of Economic Advisors1President Bush is on an eight-day tour of Asia. Hes visiting American jobs. David Letterman, late-night comedianAs the 2008 U.S. presidential campaign heated up, candidates scrambled for policy positions on a tricky topic: the movement of jobs from the United States offshore, often to developing countries and within American companies who had set up subsidiaries in foreign countries. In June 2007, a memo from Barack Obamas staff hit a nerve. The memo referred to Hillary Clinton as a senator from the Indian state of Punjab and suggested that Clinton was too close to executives and companies that were moving jobs to India. The memo backfired, forcing Obama to apologize to Indian-Americans and to reassure his business backers that he did not oppose all offshoring efforts.2 Presidential candidates have struggled to explain what steps, if any, they would take to limit offshoring.At the same time, senior managers struggled to decide which activities, if any, to move offshore and where to move them. Many companies, such as IBM, had taken dramatic steps. IBM had moved its global procurement chief from New York to Shenzhen, China in 2006; performed its back-office financial work in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; provided global support for its Web sites out of Ireland and Brazil; and moved research efforts into China, India, and Israel.3 IBMs workforce in India grew from 3,000 in 2002 to 53,000 in 2007. During the same period, its headcount fell slightly in the United States, where computer programmers salaries were two to ten times higher than in India.4 The shift in employment was controversial inside and outside the company: union organizers had interrupted a recent IBM shareholders meeting with chants of “Offshore the CEO.”5Policy makers in developing countries also faced choices about offshoringbut as an opportunity rather than a challenge. For instance, Mexicos maquiladoras, Chinas Special Economic Zones (SEZs), and Indias software outsourcers had attracted billions of dollars in foreign direct investment. The Mexican maquiladoras had existed since the 1960s, but they had become especially popular after the passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1993. The Chinese SEZs were formed in conjunction with reforms of the post-Maoist era to usher in gradual economic opennessProfessors Richard H.K. Vietor and Jan W. Rivkin and Research Associate Juliana Seminerio prepared this case with the assistance of Research Associate Troy Smith. This case was developed from published sources. HBS cases are developed solely as the basis for class discussion. Cases are not intended to serve as endorsements, sources of primary data, or illustrations of effective or ineffective management.Copyright © 2008 President and Fellows of Harvard College. To order copies or request permission to reproduce materials, call 1-800-545-7685, write Harvard Business School Publishing, Boston, MA 02163, or go to http:/www.hbsp.harvard.edu. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, used in a spreadsheet, or transmitted in any form or by any meanselectronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwisewithout the permission of Harvard Business School.708-30 The Offshoring of Americaand trade with the West. Indias intellectual capital created a potential for inexpensive white-collar labor after 1991 after the countrys brush with bankruptcy forced a liberalization program that continued in 2008. The governments in all three countries created favorable business environments that enabled foreign companies to seize opportunities for sales growth or cost reduction not available in their home countries. In turn, Mexico, China, and India sought to increase inflows of foreign direct investment to fund this growth, employment, and the acquisition of management skills and technology.The Nature of OffshoringDebates about offshoring were muddied in part by the lack of an agreed-upon definition for the term.6 In its broadest sense, offshoring involved the transfer of job activities abroad, often to attain lower labor costs and centered mainly around manufacturing operations (e.g., a PC maker shuts down assembly operations in Texas and opens similar operations in China) and service delivery (e.g., a PC maker shuts down its technical support hotline in Colorado and opens a similar hotline in Bangalore, India). The term “offshoring” also described both the shift of activities from the U.S. facilities to wholly-owned subsidiaries (e.g., a company sets up an Indian subsidiary to run its data centers) and the outsourcing of activities to other companies abroad (e.g., a company signs a contract with Wipro to run its data centers in India). Further variations of offshoring arose when, for instance, a U.S. company expanded its operations overseas but maintained existing operations in the U.S., or when it opened an offshore facility but sold the new output exclusively overseas. Exhibits 1 and 2 show two efforts by the U.S. Government Accountability Office to distinguish offshoring from other practices.The character of offshore activity shifted over time as conditions in host countries changed, as companies grew skilled and comfortable in managing distant operations, as competition in various industries intensified, and as communication and computing technology evolved. Among the earliest jobs to move abroad en masse were low-skill assembly operations that migrated to Mexico and Asia in the 1980s. The gradual economic opening of China in the 1980s and 1990s, the renaissance of Eastern Europe after the 1989 fall of the Berlin Wall, and the development of contract outsourcers during the 1990s accelerated the shift of manufacturing jobs offshore. The so-called “Washington Consensus”a set of economic liberalization policies that India began adopting in 1991set the stage for gradually increasing foreign investment in India. Meanwhile, Indian software vendors proved their abilities by helping U.S. companies manage the potential Y2K computer crisis in 2000. The advent of the Internet, the popularization of email, the standardization of computer platforms, and overinvestment in global telecommunications capacity during the high-tech bubbleall events of the 1990sfacilitated the shift of offshoring from manufacturing to services. Among the first services to shift offshore in large scale were software programming, call-center operations, and data- center management.By 2007, the general public associated offshoring with assembly operations, computer programming, and technical help desks. Yet a wider range of services were beginning to move overseas, as the following examples illustrate.· Brickwork, a division of Indian firm B2K, offered a “remote executive assistant” service that allowed busy businesspeople to hire Indian workers to create PowerPoint presentations, do basic research, and check facts for about $1,500 to $2,000 a month. Taking advantage of the time difference between the U.S. and India, an assistant could receive an assignment as the executive was leaving work in the evening in the U.S. and then have the completed product in the executives email inbox by the beginning of the next workday.72The Offshoring of America708-030· A number of American companies acted to tap pools of scientific talent turned to Eastern Europe, Central Europe, and Russia for scientific talent. In 2005, for instance, the investment bank Morgan Stanley opened a mathematical modeling center in Budapest, Hungary, to support its fixed income trading business. The following year, Morgan Stanley expanded its Budapest operations to provide its New York and London offices with services related to mortgage financing, financial control, and information technology. EDS, ExxonMobil, IBM, General Electric, Cisco, and SAP were said to have similar regional or international service centers in Hungary.8· In a similar vein, investment banks in the United States and Europe were increasingly relying on Indian workersnot only for IT support, but also for investment research and financial modeling. Goldman Sachs, for instance, launched its Bangalore operation in 2004 to provide support services for global operations. By 2006, Goldman was performing a broad array of investment banking and securities activities in India. The Bangalore office was on track to eclipse Tokyo as the firms third largest office worldwide. The Financial Times reported that, “Goldmans Bangalore staff includes software designers, transaction processing staff and, increasingly, highly skilled analysts who produce modeling and other data that appear in Goldman research reports.”9 An array of Indian firms such as OfficeTiger and Copal Partners stood ready to provide financial and business research services to U.S. firms that did not want to establish their own operations in India.· The number of U.S. tax returns prepared in India rose from 25,000 in 2003 to an estimated 400,000 in 2005. While the number of U.S. candidates sitting for the certified public accountant exam had declined during the 1990s, Indian universities produced 70,000 accounting graduates each year. It was estimated that U.S. tax preparation companies could pay $39 per billable hour to employ an accountant in the U.S. or pay a middleman $20 per billable hour for equivalent services performed in India. Accountants salaries in India were estimated to start at $100 per month.10· Many U.S. hospitals were moving toward “teleradiology,” in which images from X-rays, CAT scans, MRIs, and ultrasounds were sent electronically to, and read by, doctors who could be located anywhere in the world. U.S.-based doctors covered daytime hours while U.S.-trained doctors located in Israel, India, or elsewhere provided night coverage for U.S. patients, working normal hours in their countries of residence. This arrangement reduced doctor fatigue and mistakes, helped meet the rising demands of an aging population, and supplemented a shrinking base of caregivers. The largest teleradiology firm, Nighthawk Radiology Services, based in Zurich, Switzerland and Sydney, Australia, claimed to serve 933 hospitals (about 17% of the hospitals in the U.S.)11 The firm Wipro Spectramind, based in India, managed the radiology services of Massachusetts General Hospital for its second and third shifts. Indian radiologists earned an average of $20,000 per year, compared to the$315,000 annual salary of an American radiologist.12· The domestic operations of certain U.S. firms presaged other business activities that might soon be moved abroad. For example, several McDonalds franchises in Missouri had shifted the processing of drive-through orders to a call center in Colorado Springs. Employees in the call center would take a customers order and then relay it, along with a picture of the customer, to the interior of the specific McDonalds via high-speed data lines. On-site workers would prepare the meal and deliver it to the drive-through window to be picked up by the customer. The process boosted the profits of the individual store by allocating employee time better and decreasing mistakes.133708-30 The Offshoring of America· A clinic at Kavai Hospital in Anand, India, specialized in matching infertile couples from around the world with Indian women who were willing to be surrogate mothers. The clinic offered surrogacy services for a fraction of U.S. rates, and each Indian woman earned as much from one pregnancy as she might otherwise earn in ten years. These “pioneers of outsourced pregnancies” had given birth to approximately forty babies by the end of 2007.14The Extent and Impact of OffshoringEstimates of the number of jobs that had moved offshore, would move offshore, or could possibly move offshore varied widelyfrom the hundreds of thousands to the tens of millions. Official statistics on the phenomenon were hard to come by. Indeed, a 2004 report by the Government Accountability Office bore the inauspicious title, “Current government data provide limited insight into offshoring of services.” Exhibit 3 summarizes six different efforts to determine the extent of offshoring. The efforts employed quite different methodologies.Just as the extent of offshoring was debatable, so were its firm- and country-level effects.Firm-level effects Most firms moved activities abroad in pursuit of profit. Especially compelling was the prospect of savings on labor costs. In services, for example, a financial analyst who earned$35 per hour in the United States might receive $10 in India. In the manufacturing sector, workers who earned $20 per hour or more in the U.S. were replaced by similar employees who worked for a dollar or less per hour in China (Exhibit 4). Beyond labor savings, U.S. firms were drawn abroad for many reasonsto gain access to new markets, to serve business customers who were globalizing themselves, to tap new talent pools, and so forth.Yet offshoring did not guarantee higher profits for a particular business. The success of an offshoring effort was driven by factors such as the firms ability to manage in remote locations and by the caliber and skills of the local labor force. In addition, exogenous factors such as political stability, language skills, infrastructure, and enforceability of intellectual property rights and business contracts affected the success of an offshore operation. In a survey of business executives performed by the Ventoro Institute, a think tank devoted to studying global sourcing, 36% of executives reported that their offshoring strategies had failed. The Institute found that offshoring had led to an increase in costs in 28% of cases and no cost savings in 25% of cases.15By 2007, stories of failed offshoring efforts were prevalent in the business press. For example, computer-maker Dell moved customer support for corporate clients back from India to the U.S. Customers, Dell said, complained that the foreign support operators were “difficult to communicate with because of thick accents and scripted responses.” The company did, however, retain call centers in India to serve the consumer market, which accounted for 15% of its customer base. Of Dells 44,300 employees, 54% were located outside the U.S.16 In another instance, a skateboard manufacturer, whose clients consisted mostly of teenage boys, moved its customer service operations to India. General cultural misunderstanding and the