2022年中国古代的致仕制度 .pdf
精品办公文档中国古代的致仕制度【内容提要】中国古代官吏的致仕养老称为致仕、致事或者致政，意思是交还官职，“还禄位于君”。西周时已有致仕养老的制度，“大夫七十致仕，老于乡里”。卿大夫致仕称“国老”，士致仕称“庶老”【关键字】致仕 条件 年龄 待遇 作用我国古代也有致仕制度，但仅限于官吏，它是我国古代官僚制度的一个重要组成部分，常见的称谓有“致仕”、“致事”、“致政”。春秋公羊传载“退而致仕”，书中注释说“致仕，还禄位于君”，意即交换权利于君王。古代官吏的致仕制度发轫雨何时难以考察，但到周代，随着奴隶制官僚制度的完善，与之配套的各级官吏的致仕年龄和善后问题已纳入行政管理的范围，致仕制度始建于春秋战国时期，形成于汉朝时期，发展与唐朝时期，完善于宋、元、明、清时期。致仕制度的内容一、“致仕”一词的来源“致仕”一词始见于唐宋文集，唐代散文家韩愈复志赋序中说到“致仕于居，作复志赋”，宋史韩贽传中有“致仕十五年，谢绝人事，读书赋诗以自娱”词句。何谓“致仕”？依古代而言，即是辞官于朝，退闲于家。二、“致仕”条件首先，古代官吏致仕要达到一定的年龄条件。礼记曲礼说：“大夫七十而致事。”尚书大传也说：“大夫七十而致事，老于乡里。”也就是说致仕的年龄为七十岁。为何规定致仕年龄为七十？白虎通义致仕作了解释：“臣七十悬车致仕者，臣以执事趋走为职，七十阳道极，耳目不聪明，跂踦之属，是以退老去避贤者，所以长廉耻远也。”一句话，人至七十，老而衰，不便在官场趋走办事了。后来的汉、唐、宋、元等朝代基本实行七十而致仕的规定，但是到了明清两朝，则规定“文武官六十以上者，皆听致仕”。其次，有一些官吏未到致仕年龄，却可以提前致仕，这是因为个人的身体状况和任职效能。如唐朝规定“老病不堪厘务者，与致仕”，意即若身染疾病或受精品办公文档伤者，虽未到致仕年龄也可以致仕请俸；明朝亦有规定，老疾不能任事者，或软弱无效能的官吏，可随时勒令致仕。由此可见，提前致仕是容许的。三、“致仕”后的待遇致仕制度的另一个要件就是致仕后的待遇，这关系到致仕官员老有所养、老有所尊的大问题，历朝历代对此都比较重视。首先是政治上的待遇，据礼记记载：卿大夫致仕称“国老”，一般官吏致仕称“庶老”，从称谓上就可以看出对老臣的尊重。到了唐朝，对致仕官吏要举行欢送仪式，敲锣打鼓，送归老家。与现在发一个“光荣致仕”的证书，虽然形式不同，但意思是一样的，三品以上官员致仕后，仍恩准在朝廷行走，参与国家大事。明朝的致仕官员在礼仪上依然受到尊重，在参加宴会、祭祀等活动中，仍享有原有职级的礼遇。其次是经济上的待遇，致仕后官吏会被优厚对待。汉代规定，年俸禄在两千石以上的官员致仕，可领取原俸禄的三分之一作为养老金；魏、晋时期的致仕官吏，则干脆委任一个“顾问”之类的闲职，供养起来；唐代，五品以上致仕者给半俸，功臣元勋经皇帝特批，致仕后可保留全薪（可见唐朝的国富民强）。如名相房玄龄、宰相宋璟致仕时，皇上特批均赐全禄。六品以下的官员致仕则赐给一定数量的田地养老。两宋时期对致仕官员的安置和优待，可以说是达到了一个高峰。尤其是宋神宗以后，允许带职致仕。官员致仕时，皆晋升一级。致仕后，仍可加衔晋级，参与朝政。与在职官员致仕少了一点实权。明朝初期规定，三品以上官员按现职致仕，四品以下，任现职满三年且无大过者，可升一级致仕。明中叶改为业绩突出者可升两级致仕。致仕金方面，明初曾规定致仕官食原俸，但很快就予以取消。后来有规定致仕官员一般清情况下不发放致仕金，但不会让你喝西北风的，若家贫不能自存者，“有司月给米二石，修（终）其身”。清朝基本上也按照明朝的致仕制度执行。（看来明清两朝品级较低的官员致仕后生活比较惨，这也不难理解，贪官会那么多了和他们在职加紧搜刮民脂民膏了）四、“致仕”的原因一是回避政治权力斗争。最典型的例子就是史记越王勾践世家和史文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 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中均有记载的春秋战国时越国的大夫范蠡。范蠡是一位杰出的政治家、思想家和谋略家。在越国被吴国灭亡后，范蠡殚精竭虑辅佐越王勾践，“十年生聚，十年教训”，在经过二十余年卧薪尝胆之后，勾践击败吴王夫差，兴邦复国。作为大功臣的范蠡被勾践封为上将军，此时范蠡达到了为人臣者的最高境界。但此时的范蠡深谙“狡兔死，走狗烹；飞鸟尽，良弓藏”的道理，于是告老辞官，携西施遁入“五湖”，可谓极具聪明之举。二是无心于官场。官员无心于官场，向往能够回到家乡，于是“告老还乡”。此种情形下的任何小事都有可能引起“告老还乡”提前致仕的想法，如人们熟知的晋朝彭泽县令陶渊明就是向往田园生活，主动请辞“告老还乡”。又据世说新语识鉴记载：“张季鹰辟齐王东曹掾，在洛，见秋风起，因思吴中菰菜、莼羹、鲈鱼脍，曰：人生贵得适意尔，何能羁宦数千里，以要名爵？遂命驾便归。”张翰晋朝是大司马，字季鹰，由于一日，秋风乍起，触景生情思念起家乡吴地(浙江)的特产菰菜、莼羹、鲈鱼脍来了，突然领悟：人生在世最重要的是图个快快乐乐，又何必要为了个官名而别乡数千里，还要备受羁绊呢？于是“告老还乡”。三是客观条件，体弱多病，难当重任。如在唐太宗时，官吏致仕年龄是七十岁，对朝廷有大贡献者还可延缓致仕年龄。但开国元勋李靖，因自感伤病碍身，遂在六十四岁时“告病还乡”。四是年限已到。也就是任职官员的年龄到了七十岁后，自动致仕。五、“致仕制度”的作用致仕制度的建立在一定程度上消除了官吏终身制，保持了统治阶级的生气。官吏致仕后，国家为保证其特权，令其按级领取俸禄，使退职者老有所养，老有所安，又使在职者无后顾之忧，它有利于缓和统治阶级内部的矛盾，维护统治阶级的统治。不同时期的“致仕制度”一、先秦时期的致仕制度西周已形成了官吏致仕养老制度。礼记王制说，卿大夫“六十不亲学，七十致政”。注谓“致政，还君事”。官吏七十岁岁致仕致仕后，“周人养国老于东胶，养庶老于虞痒。虞痒在国之西郊”。例如，周公致政后，周成王使居洛邑，文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 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ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3精品办公文档享受最高待遇。春秋时期各国还对官吏建立了致仕制度。官吏到了一定的年龄，就自动请求致仕，称为“请老”、“告老”或“老”。致仕后的官吏被称为“国老”，受到国人尊重，有专门的活动场所。致仕的年龄为70 岁，即所谓“七十致仕”。二、秦汉时期的致仕制度。秦汉时期，尤其是两汉时期的致仕与优恤制度已经比较完备。致仕即致仕，条件是年老或有病（告老告病皆卑称“乞骸骨”）。致仕后，根据不同的官阶享受优恤待遇。两汉公卿大臣老病致仕后的待遇，一般由皇帝下诏书决定，情况差别很大。有的享受全俸，有的三公享受二千石俸，大多数人享受原俸的三分之一（汉书卷 12平帝纪，元始元年正月，“天下吏比二千石以上年老致仕者，参分故禄，以一与之，终其身”，以此可供参考）。还有的享受一次性赏赐的钱、谷、黄金、房舍、和车马等。政治上地方官按时派人“存问”，有些德高望重的老臣还可依时朝见皇帝。官员死后，朝典还有一种抚恤制度。主要内容是根据官员们身份地位的不同给予不同等级的赠赙（财物）、赠印绶、赠谥、赠冢地、赠各种葬具和明器等。如官吏系因公死亡，则厚加赏赐，并荫其后代。实行这些制度，目的显然是使官吏免除后顾之忧，更加兢兢业业地位封建王朝服务。三、魏晋南北朝时期的致仕制度魏晋南北朝时期，官员规定有致仕制度。一般沿袭先秦古制，以七十岁为致仕年龄，“七十悬车”似乎已经成为惯例。即使朝廷没有命令致仕，在职官员也多自以年老请求辞职，因为当时认为年老致仕是光荣的事情。致仕养老的官号，多加特进、光禄大夫、太中大夫、中散大夫等官号，以示优崇。这些官员并无职事，是作为领取俸禄、享受礼遇的依据。此外，赐钱帛谷物，赐衣茶，赐床帷被褥、几杖、安车驷马等，也是优崇致仕功勋重臣的礼制。一般官位越高，致仕后的待遇越优崇。四、唐代的致仕制度唐朝的致仕制度，随着阶级基础的扩大，致仕制度作为官僚制度的一部分，又有进一步的发展和完善。特点如下：第一，致仕年龄教灵活。“诸职事官七十听致仕。年虽少形文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 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ZU4Z8T3P5T3精品办公文档容衰老者，亦听致仕。”若精力旺盛，胜任职守，亦可缓退。“年七十以上，应致仕，若齿力未衰，亦听厘务。”第二、致仕手续简便，只要造册上报即可。“五品以上上表，六品以下由省奏闻。”第三，对致仕官员举行欢送仪式，敲锣打鼓，送归老家，很有人情味。“开元五年十月敕，致仕应请物令所有送至宅。”第四，致仕官享受优厚待遇。首先在政治上，三品以上官致仕后，仍恩准在朝廷行走，参与国事决策。其次在经济上，五品官以上致仕者给半俸，功臣元勋受皇帝特恩，可给全薪致仕。六品以下，则赐口分田养老。另外，高官致仕，允留一子领薪侍养。“致仕官子弟无京官者，其在外者，听一人停官侍养。”总之，唐王朝在致仕制度上，其政策规定较汉要完备得多。五、两宋时期的致仕制度两宋时期，致仕制度又有新的规定。宋制，文官年满七十为致仕之期，武臣可延长十岁。若自愿亦可提前致仕。但少数元老大臣，不在此限。两宋对致仕官员的安置和待遇，优厚备至，无以复加。其特点：第一，宋神宗前，官员致仕皆解除原任官职，神宗以后允许带职致仕。官员致仕后，仍可加衔晋级，参与朝政，实处“半退”状态。第二，宋官致仕时，皆升转一官。第三，依据致仕官的品级，其子孙可“荫补”一定的官职。但中级官员如荫补子弟，即不能转官，称“守本官致仕”。宋朝开创了老子致仕、儿子顶职的先河。第四，从宋真宗起，职事官致仕后，食半俸，立有战功者，部分食全俸。第五，有些官吏名义上致仕，实际上又安排了其它名誉职务，令领职务俸禄（全俸）。此种“退居第二线”的官，称“祠禄官”。有些官吏告退后，安置于台阁，令写碑修书，撰国史，“卒老于文字之间”。有些官吏致仕后，因工作需要，朝廷又特命复出任职，时称“落致仕”赵宋王朝政府机构庞杂，冗员遍布，其症结何在？我们从其致仕制度上即可窥见一斑。六、元朝的致仕制度元朝实行官员致仕始于至元二十二年（1291年），规定致仕的年龄是70岁。大德七年（1303 年）规定，三品以下致仕官员加散官一等。九年（1305 年）规定，致仕官员子幼家贫者给半俸终其身。后来，在“加散官一等”外，“职事”也升一等，也就是说授予与加授散官等级相当的职事，当然是虚的，所以称为“遥授职事”（元史卷 84选举志四：元典章卷 11吏都五致仕）。但是，文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 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ZU4Z8T3P5T3精品办公文档翰林、太史司天官“虽年过七十，不致仕”。这是从郭守敬开始的。郭守敬是一位具有多方面杰出成就的科学家，在天文、历法、水利等方面都做出了伟大的贡献。大德七年（1303年），元朝政府全面推行七十致仕制度，“独守敬不许所请”。从此，翰林国史院和太史院的一些专门人才，不再首致仕年龄限制（元史卷194郭守敬传。按：元代的太史院掌天文历数之事）。七、明清时期的致仕制度明清之际，统治阶级为了维护本阶级的利益，对致仕制度十分重视。关于致仕年龄，洪武元年（1368年）规定：“凡内外官员年七十者，听令致仕，其有特旨选用者，不拘此例。”洪武十三年（1380年）正月，诏令“文武官年六十以上者听致仕，给以诰敕。”弘治四年（1491年），又诏“自愿告退官员，不分年岁，俱令致仕。”清朝文官，六十岁令致仕。武官则不然，副将以下，年满六十，概予罢。低级武官，致仕更早，参将五十四，游击五十一，都司守备四十八，千总、把总四十五。（一句话，武官官职愈低，致仕愈早。）明清以后，破除古制，将致仕年龄提前10年以上，且带有强制性，这是是明清两代 高度集权政治所致，客观上也比较合乎实际。故六十岁致仕，相沿至今。致仕制度评价综上所述,致仕制度作为中国古代官吏制度的重要组成部分,为中国古代政治制度的建设做出了重大贡献。它的建立和推行,改变了“躁競求进者多,知止求退者少”的局面,促进了官员队伍的新陈代谢,提高了行政效率。既有利于开放政权,延揽人才,缓解统治阶级内部矛盾,形成良好政风。又可使官民比例趋于合理,减少财政支出,减轻人民负担,缓和阶级矛盾,保持长治久安。在具体实施过程中,又根据身体健康状况,对身患疾病无法进行正常政务活动的官员提前致仕,对文化科学部门的专业技术人员推迟致仕,延长任职年限。这些灵活务实的特殊措施,也值得称道。因此,我们对古代官吏致仕制度应基本予以肯定。受阶级和时代局限,古代致仕制度仍多有弊端。如致仕官员的子弟不论德才,一律恩荫,这种变相的官位世袭,造成大批冗官,助长不正之风。又如致仕制度主要施用于高级官吏,中下级官吏致仕无门,他们为日后打算,自然难免巧取豪夺,从而加剧吏治败坏。尤其是在封建君主专制政体下,皇帝常因一己之好恶,文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3文档编码:CX10B1A4U1P3 HR8Z2H6S1O4 ZU4Z8T3P5T3精品办公文档随意“特恩”,破坏了制度的严肃性,使致仕制度常常近于废止,消极影响显而易见。【参考书目】中国古代政治制度史词典主编
