避免塑料大流行：COVID-19后世界中可持续发展的未来.docx

Table of ContentsIntroduction1Plastic before COVID-19 5Plastic and the Pandemic8What is Plastic? 11Recycling13The Sustainable Future of Plastic15Conclusions and Recommendations19References22Avoiding a Plastic Pandemic: The Future of Sustainability in a Post COVID-19 World tons of plastic waste by redesigning its products, while at the same time decreasing water use by 8.7% and greenhouse gas emissions by 8.6%. Amcor (2019), "Sustainability Review 2019" s:/ LyyNHtldFY/93a8af747a3b66089efbbedl 18f42af7/Sustainability_Review_Vl l_AW_Digital.pdf, accessed July 16,2020.Avoiding a Plastic Pandemic: The Future of Sustainability in a Post COVID-19 World tons of plastic waste by redesigning its products, while at the same time decreasing water use by 8.7% and greenhouse gas emissions by 8.6%. Amcor (2019), "Sustainability Review 2019" s:/ LyyNHtldFY/93a8af747a3b66089efbbedl 18f42af7/Sustainability_Review_Vl l_AW_Digital.pdf, accessed July 16,2020.It is important to notice that this increased focus on plastic composition was not only limited to smarter designs to improve recyclability, but also to the development of bio-based alternatives to traditional plastic, as discussed in more detail later in this paper.Although progress was not uniform or particularly fast-paced, the environmental crisis associated with plastic production, use and disposal had finally captured the attention of the public, governments, and businesses around the world. The search for sustainable solutions which could be scaled up had begun, together with the recognition that addressing the symptoms of this crisis through simple clean-ups was not enough, but that a systemic shift tackling the root causes of this environmental and sustainability crisis was required.However, the COVID-19 pandemic has significantly disrupted not only our lives but also how the world sees plastic. Personal protective equipment (PPE) and other plastic products have become key in preventing the spread of the virus, thus increasing demand and making the need to address the sustainable future of plastic even more pressing.Plastic and the PandemicAs COVID-19 spread across the globe, nations found themselves underprepared and ill-equipped to weather the pandemic. Healthcare workers rely on PPEs such as face masks, gloves, gowns, goggles, and face shields to protect themselves and their patients from being infected and infect- ing others. PPEs shortages caused by skyrocketing demand, panic buying, hoarding and misuse left frontline workers dangerously under protected to fight the pandemicputting lives at risk.At the height of the first COVID-19 wave, one single hospital in New York city had to increase its orders for face masks from 20,000 to 300,000 per week.24 At a global level, the World Health Organization estimates that 89 million surgical masks, 76 million examination gloves, and 1.6 million goggles will be required to respond to the COVID19 crisis each month; and that to meet this demand, manufacturing capacity will need to increase by 40%.25But why is this relevant to the plastic industry? Because PPEs are mainly made of plastic. Surgical and N95 masks are made of polypropylene or polystyrene,26 medical gloves of latex or polyvinyl chloride,27 goggles of polycarbonate,28 protective gowns of polyester or polyester-cotton blends.29 And the list continues-hand sanitizers and disinfecting products contain plastic and/or are sold inside plastic packaging.As businesses cautiously try to reopen, plastic screens to maintain social distance guidelines and single-use plastic containers for food and beverages24Clifford, T. (2020), "Hospital supplier Owens & Minor is expanding capacity to meet personal protectiveequipment demands" CNBC s:/ cnbc /2020/03/27/hospital-supplier-owens-minor-expand- ing-capacity-to-meet-ppe-demands.html, accessed August 16,2020.25 WHO (2020) uShortage of personal protective equipment endangering health workers worldwide'1 s: who.int/news/item/03-03-2020-shortage-of-personal-protective-equipment-endangering-health- workers-worldwide, accessed Sept. 28, 2020.26 Henneberry, B. (2020), "How Surgical Masks are Made" Thomas Publishing Company s:/ thomas- net /articles/other/how-surgical-masks-are-made/, accessed August 18, 2020.27 Paxton, V. (2010), “Medical GlovesTypes and Uses" AllegroMedical s:blog.ollegromedicol / medical-glove-types-latex-vinyl-and-nitrile-exam-and-surgical-gloves-buyers-guide-1534.html, accessed August 18, 2020.28 Edwards, E. (2020) uHow are Goggles Mode?” Thomas Publishing Company s:/ thomasnet / articles/plant-facility-equipment/how-are-goggles-made/, accessed August 18,202029Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2020), "Optimizing Supply of PPE and Other EquipmentDuring Shortages'1 s:/ cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/ppe-strategy/isolation-gowns.htmL accessed August 18,2020.have become a must. In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) encourages the service industry to use disposable menus, plates and utensils, together with single-serving condiment containers. Howard, J Liptak, K. and Valencia, N. (2020), “CDC's draft guidance for reopening amid coronavirus includes spaced-out seating in schools, disposable menus in restaurants" CNN h甘ps: cnn. com/2020/04/30/health/coronavirus-usa-cdc-reopening-bn-wellness/index.html, accessed August 18, 2020. Some states and municipalities have gone even further, either by postponing the enactment of bans on single-use plastic products or temporarily lifting those that were already in place and instead, banning businesses from allowing customers to bring their own reusable bags or mugs. Peszko, G. (2020), “Plastics: The Coronavirus could reset the Clock" World Bank, s:blogs.worldbank. org/voices/plastics-coronavirus-could-reset-clock, accessed August 18,2020. Although these measures are meant to protect our health and safety, they are also bolstering an already dangerous reliance on single-use plastic.At the same time, due to the lockdowns-coupled with decreased demand-fossil fuels prices have plummeted, making virgin plastic a much more profitable alternative to using recycled plastic. Chasan, E. (2020), “The Oil Crash Created a Recycled Plastic Trap" Bloomberg s:/ bloomberg. com/news/articles/2020-05-06/oil-crash-means-single-use-plastic-is-back-as-recycling-struggles, accessed August 2b 2020. And while the former has always been the less expensive option, it is now even more enticing to producers, hindering the transition to more sustainable business models.Furthermore, even before the pandemic low recycling levels made it difficult for companies to source the materials needed for sustainability initiatives. According to the Consumer Brand Association, in 2019 there was only enough recycled plastic in the US to meet 6% of demand. Consumer Brand Association (2020), s:consumerbrandsassociation.org/sustainability/recycling-poli- cy-platform/z accessed August 18, 2020. Companies are thus faced with the challenging choice of either maintaining their sustainability plans or adding to the industry's environmental challenge by choosing the more profitable option. Citing the pandemic as the reason, companies like Danone and Coca-Cola have already missed their self-imposed sustainability goals for this year. Chaudhuri, S. (2020), “How Coronavirus Complicated the Quest for a Greener Plastic Bottle'1 Wall Street Journal s:/ wsj /articles/how-the-coronavirus-complicated-the-quest-for-a-greener-plastic- bottle-11593005945, accessed August 16 2020.The pandemic has also deeply affected waste management and recycling schemes throughout the world. While PPEs from healthcare services are disposed of in sealable bags (more plastic) before being incinerated as medical waste, Fletcher, C. (2020), "How is Used PPE Disposed of During the Coronavirus Pandemic" Global Biodefense h 甘 ps:globolbiodefense /2020/05/12/how-is-used-ppe-disposed-of-during-the-coronovirus-pon- demic/, accessed August 21z 2020. individuals are advised to discard PPEs with domestic waste, Maiden, T Patton, B., Balaster, M. and Schmoll, E. (2020),uNovel CoronavirusHow employers should dis-pose of personal protective equipment" ReedSmith s:/ ehslawinsights /2020/04/novel-coro-navirus-how-employers-should-dispose-of-personal-protective-equipment/, accessed August 21,2020. making it potentially biohazardous for trash collectors. Unfortunately, this is not enough to guarantee that the regular plastic waste being recycled has also not been contaminated making recycling impossible and increasing the burden on already strained waste management systems.During the complete shutdowns endured in many countries, services that were already poorly managed, such as recycling and can collection, were completely halted. In the US alone, at least 100 municipalities suspended curbside recycling programs as COVID-19 cases surged. Chaudhuri, S. (2020), “How Coronavirus Complicated the Quest for a Greener Plastic Bottle'* Wall Street Journal s:/ wsj /articles/how-the-coronavirus-complicated-the-quest-for-a-greener-plastic- bottle-11593005945, accessed August 16, 2020. Even after the shutdowns, most recycling operations have struggled to get back to full capacity due to the challenge of protecting workers from potentially harmful waste. During the first week of August 2020, recycling services in Houston, Philadelphia, and Nashville, among others, reported disruptions due to increasing volumes and reduced staff. Rosengren, C., Crunden, E.A. (2020), "How coronavirus is disrupting US waste and recycling'1 WasteDive h甘ps: wostedive /news/coronovirus-us-woste-recycling-disruption-trcickei7574324/, accessed August 16,2020. As a result an increasing number of items which under normal circumstances could be recycled are instead sent to landfills, adding to the sustainability challenge.The pandemic has turned plastic into a key ally to fight COVID-19 but has also created a perfect storm for petroleum-based plastic pollution: demand is high, costs are low, and unfortunately, municipal waste services are not equipped to process potentially contaminated plastic waste.What is Plastic?We usually talk about “plastic“ as though it is a single material, but as mentioned, there are many different kinds. The word plastic derives from the Latinmeaning capable of being molded into various forms andrefers to a wide range of synthetic and natural materials with many versatile properties and potential applications.Plastics are inexpensive, durable, and lightweight. They can be soft and pliable or hard and strong, they can withstand extreme cold or heat, and they can be corrosion or chemical resistant. Furthermore, if the physical properties do not meet the desired requirements, they can be enhanced with additives such as pigments, plasticizers, flame retardants, antioxidants, light and heat stabilizers, lubricants, antistatic agents, etc. Hahladakis, J., Velis, C., Weber, R.z lacovidou, E. and PurneL P. (2018), "An overview of chemical additives present in plastics: Migration, release, fate and environmental impact during their use, disposal and recy- cling” Journal Haz. Mat. V34< 179-199 s:/doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2Ol 7.10.014.Interest in plastic arose in the 1800s to replace scarce materials such as ivory and horn. The first synthetic plastics were derived from cellulose, a substance found in plants. Plastics Industry Association (2020),11History of Plastics" h甘ps: plosticsindustry.org/history-plostics, accessed Sep. L2020. Today, plastics are one of the staple products of the chemical industry and are mainly produced from fossil fuels, with only less than 1% deriving from biobased materials such sugar, starch, or plant-based oils. Nova Institute (2020), uBio-based Building Blocks and PolymersGlobal Capacities, Production and Trends 2019-2024" :/nova-institute.eu/press/?id=164 accessed Sept. 1,2020. Global production is constantly increasing and reached almost 360 million tons in 2018. China was by far the world's largest producer, with a market share of 30% (108 million tons), followed by North America at 18% (65 million tons) and Europe at 17% (62 million tons). Plastic Europe (2019), Plastics - the Facts 2019" s:/ plasticseurope.org/en/resources/market-da- ta accessed Sept. L 2020. Demand by sector varies from country to country, but packaging and construction usually domi- nate. Shares for the EU's market were as follows: packaging 39.9%, building and construction 19.8%, automotive 9.9%, electrical and electronics 6.2%, household, leisure and sports 4.1%, agriculture 3.4%, others (appliances, mechanical engineering, furniture, medical, etc.) 16.7%, Ibid.Plastics are made of one or more polymers The word polymer derives from the Greek “polus“ meaning many, and “meros“ meaning parts or units. A polymer can be thought of as a very long chain in which each link is a monomer (single unit). Although most polymers contain only carbon and hydrogen, some may also contain oxygen, chlorine, fluorine, nitrogen, silicon, phosphorus, and sulfur. While most plastics are based on the carbon atom, silicones are based on silicon. and include well-known names such as PE (polyethylene) used in plastic bags, trays and containers, food packaging, etc.; PP (polypropylene) used in food packaging, snack wrappers, hinged caps, microwave containers, pipes, automotive parts, bank notes, etc.; PVC (polyvinyl chloride) used for window frames, floor and wall covering, pipes, cable insulation, garden hoses, inflatable pools, etc.; PET (polyethylene terephthalate) used for bottles for water, soft drinks, juices, cleaners, etc.; PS (polystyrene) used for Styrofoam cups, building insulation, electrical and electronic equipment, inner liner for fridges, eyeglasses frames, etc.; and Teflon (polytetrafluoroethylene) used for nonstick surfaces.Synthetic plastics can be broadly divided into two categories: thermoplastics and thermosets. Thermoplastics mainly constitute the plastic objects of everyday life. Thermosets tend to be more specialty materials and resins and are converted to chemically cross-linked polymers, during the molding process, creating a three-dimensional network. Thermoplastics remain plastic after molding and can therefore be reshaped and recycled repeatedly. Thermosets, on the other hand, undergo a chemical change during the molding process and cannot be effectively reshaped and recycled-except by grinding and using them as fillers for the construction industry.Today, a world without plastic is almost unimaginable, even more so due to the COVID-19 pandemic. But while durability and inexpens