胡佛《区域经济学导论》英文版(doc 328)ehhs.docx
Evaluation Warning: The document was created with Spire.Doc for .NET.An Inntrodductiion tto Reegionnal EEconoomicssEdgarr M. Hoovver aand FFrankk Giaarrattani1 Inntrodductiion1.1 WWHAT IS RREGIOONAL ECONNOMICCS? Econoomic systtems are dynaamic entiitiess, annd thhe naaturee andd connsequuencees off chaangess thaat taake pplacee in thesse syystemms arre off connsideerablle immporttancee. Suuch cchangge afffectts thhe weell-bbeingg of indiividuuals and ultiimateely tthe ssociaal annd poolitiical fabrric oof coommunnity and natiion. As ssociaal beeingss, wee cannnot helpp butt reaact tto thhe chhangees wee obsservee. Foor soome ppeoplle thhat rreacttion is qquitee passsivee; thhe ecconommy chhangees, aand tthey findd thaat thheir immeediatte ennviroonmennt iss sommehoww difffereent, forccing adjuustmeent tto thhe neew reealitty. FFor ootherrs, cchangges iin thhe ecconommic ssysteem reepressent a chhalleenge; theey seeek tto unndersstandd thee natture of ffactoors tthat havee ledd to channge aand mmay, in llightt of thatt knoowleddge, adjuust ttheirr ownn pattternns off behhavioor orr atttemptt to brinng abbout channge iin thhe ecconommic, poliiticaal, aand ssociaal syystemms inn whiich tthey livee andd worrk.In thhis cconteext, regiionall ecoonomiics rrepreesentts a frammeworrk wiithinn whiich tthe sspatiial ccharaacterr of econnomicc sysstemss mayy be undeerstoood. We sseek to iidenttify the facttors goveerninng thhe diistriibutiion oof ecconommic aactivvity overr spaace aand tto reecognnize thatt as thiss disstribbutioon chhangees, ttheree willl bee impportaant cconseequennces for indiividuuals and for commmunitties.Thus, reggionaal orr "sppatiaal" eeconoomicss migght bbe suummedd up in tthe qquesttion "Whaat iss wheere, and whyand so wwhat?" Thhe fiirst whatt reffers to eeveryy typpe off ecoonomiic acctiviity: not onlyy prooducttion estaablisshmennts iin thhe naarroww sennse oof faactorries, farrms, and minees, bbut aalso otheer kiinds of bbusinnessees, hhouseeholdds, aand pprivaate aand ppubliic innstittutioons. Wherre reeferss to locaationn in relaationn to otheer ecconommic aactivvity; it invoolvess queestioons oof prroximmity, conncenttratiion, disppersiion, and simiilariity oor diisparrity of sspatiial ppatteerns, andd it can be ddiscuussedd eitther in bbroadd terrms, suchh as amonng reegionns, oor miicroggeogrraphiicallly, iin teerms of zzoness, neeighbborhooods, andd sittes. The why and the so wwhat refeer too intterprretattionss witthin the someewhatt elaasticc limmits of tthe eeconoomistt's ccompeetencce annd daaringg.Regioonal econnomiccs iss a rrelattivelly yooung brannch oof ecconommics. Itss latte sttart exemmpliffies the regrrettaable tenddencyy of formmal pprofeessioonal disccipliines to llose conttact withh onee anootherr andd to negllect somee impportaant pprobllem aareass thaat reequirre a mixtture of aapprooachees. UUntill faiirly receentlyy, trradittionaal ecconommistss ignnoredd thee wheere qquesttion altoogethher, findding plennty oof prrobleems tto occcupyy theem wiithouut giivingg anyy spaatiall dimmensiion tto thheir anallysiss. Trradittionaal geeograapherrs, tthouggh diirecttly cconceernedd witth whhat iis whhere, laccked any reall tecchniqque oof exxplannatioon inn terrms oof huuman behaaviorr andd insstituutionns too suppply the why, andd ressorteed too merre deescriiptioon annd maappinng. TTradiitionnal ccity plannnerss, siimilaarly limiited, remmaineed prreocccupieed wiith tthe pphysiical and aestthetiic asspectts off ideealizzed uurbann layyoutss.This unfoortunnate situuatioon haas beeen ccorreectedd to a reemarkkablee exttent withhin tthe llast few decaades. Inddividdualss whoo calll thhemseelvess by variious proffessiionall labbelseconnomissts, geoggraphhers, ecoologiists, citty annd reegionnal pplannners, reggionaal sccienttistss, annd urrbaniistshavee joiined to ddevellop aanalyyticaal toools and skillls, and to aapplyy theem too somme off thee mosst prressiing pprobllems of tthe ttime.The uunflaagginng piioneeer woork aand tthe iintelllecttual and orgaanizaationnal lleadeershiip off Wallter Isarrd siince the 19400s pllayedd a kkey rrole in eenlisstingg suppportt froom vaariouus diiscipplinees too creeate thiss neww foccus. His domaain oof "rregioonal scieence"" is extrremelly brroad. Thiis boook wwill folllow aa lesss coompreehenssive apprroachh, ussing the speccial inteerestts annd caapabiilitiies oof thhe ecconommist as aa poiint oof deepartture.1.2 TTHREEE FOUUNDATTION STONNESIt wiill bbe heelpfuul too reaalizee at the outsset tthat threee fuundammentaal coonsidderattionss undderliie thhe coompleex paatterrns oof loocatiion oof ecconommic aactivvity and mostt of the majoor prrobleems oof reegionnal eeconoomicss.The ffirstt of thesse "ffounddatioon sttoness" apppearrs inn thee simmplisstic expllanattionss of the locaationn of induustriies aand ccitiees thhat ccan sstilll be founnd inn oldd-styyle ggeogrraphyy boooks. Winee andd movvies are madee in Caliifornnia bbecauuse ttheree is plennty oof suunshiine ttheree; Neew Yoork aand NNew OOrleaans aare ggreatt porrt ciitiess beccausee eacch haas a natuural wateer-leevel routte too thee intterioor off thee couuntryy; eaasilyy devveloppablee watterpoower sitees loocateed thhe eaarly milll towwns oof Neew Ennglannd; aand sso onn. Inn othher wwordss, thhe unnequaal diistriibutiion oof cllimatte, mminerrals, soiil, ttopoggraphhy, aand mmost otheer naaturaal feeaturres hhelpss to expllain the locaationn of manyy kinnds oof ecconommic aactivvity. A bbit mmore geneerallly annd inn thee morre prrecisse teerminnologgy off ecoonomiic thheoryy, wee cann ideentiffy thhe coompleete oor paartiaal immmobiilityy of landd andd othher pproduuctivve faactorrs ass onee esssentiial ppart of aany eexplaanatiion oof whhat iis whhere. Succh immmobiilityy liees att thee heaart oof thhe coomparrativve addvanttage thatt varriouss reggionss enjjoy ffor sspeciializzatioon inn prooducttion and tradde.This is, howeever, by no mmeanss an adeqquatee expplanaationn. Onne off thee piooneerrs off reggionaal ecconommics, Auggust Löscch, sset hhimseelf tthe qquesttion of wwhat kindd of locaationn pattternns miight logiicallly bee exppecteed too apppear in aan immaginnary worlld inn whiich aall nnaturral rresouurce diffferenntialls weere aassummed aaway, thaat iss, inn a uunifoormlyy enddowedd flaat pllain.1 In suchh a ssituaationn, onne miight concceivaably expeect (1) cconceentraationn of all actiivitiies aat onne sppot, (2) unifform disppersiion oof alll acctiviitiess oveer thhe enntiree areea (tthat is, perffect homoogeneeity), orr (3) no systtemattic ppatteern aat alll, bbut aa ranndom scattter of aactivvitiees. WWhat doess acttuallly apppearr as the logiical outccome is nnone of tthesee, buut ann elaaboraate aand iinterrestiing rregullar ppatteern ssomewwhat akinn to variious crysstal struucturres aand sshowiing ssome recoognizzablee simmilarrity to rreal-worlld paatterrns oof diistriibutiion oof ciitiess andd towwns. We sshalll havve a lookk at thiss pattternn in Chappter 8. WWhat the Chriistalller-Löscch thheoreeticaal exxerciises demoonstrratedd wass thaat faactorrs otther thann natturall-ressourcce loocatiion pplay an iimporrtantt parrt inn expplainning the spattial patttern of aactivvitiees.In deeveloopingg hiss absstracct moodel, Lössch aassummed jjust two econnomicc connstraaintss dettermiiningg loccatioon: (1) eeconoomiess of spattial conccentrratioon annd (22) trranspport costts. TThesee aree thee seccond and thirrd esssenttial founndatiion sstonees.Econoomistts haave llong beenn awaare oof thhe immporttancee of econnomiees off scaale, partticullarlyy sinnce tthe ddays of AAdam Smitth, aand hhave anallyzedd theem laargelly inn terrms oof immperffect diviisibiilityy of prodductiion ffactoors aand ootherr gooods aand sserviices. Thee ecoonomiies oof sppatiaal cooncenntrattion in ttheirr turrn caan, aas wee shaall ssee iin Chhapteer 5 and elseewherre, bbe trracedd maiinly to eeconoomiess of scalle inn speecifiic inndusttriess.Finallly, goodds annd seervicces aare nnot ffreelly orr insstanttaneoouslyy mobbile: Traanspoort aand ccommuunicaationn cosst soomethhing in eefforrt annd tiime. Thesse coosts limiit thhe exxtentt to whicch addvanttagess of natuural endoowmennt orr ecoonomiies oof sppatiaal cooncenntrattion can be rrealiized.To suum upp, ann unddersttandiing oof sppatiaal annd reegionnal eeconoomic probblemss cann be buillt onn thrree ffactss of lifee: (11) naaturaal-reesourrce aadvanntagees, (2) eeconoomiess of conccentrratioon, aand (3) ccostss of trannsporrt annd coommunnicattion. In moree tecchniccal llanguuage, theese ffounddatioon sttoness cann be idenntifiied aas (11) immperffect facttor mmobillity, (2) impperfeect ddivissibillity, andd (3) impperfeect mmobillity of ggoodss andd serrvicees.1.3 RREGIOONAL ECONNOMICC PROOBLEMMS ANND THHE PLLAN OOF THHIS BBOOKWhat, theen, aare tthe aactuaal prrobleems iin whhich an uunderrstanndingg of spattial econnomiccs caan bee hellpfull? Thhey aarisee, ass we shalll seee, oon seeveraal diifferrent leveels. Somee aree priimariily mmicrooeconnomicc, innvolvving the spattial prefferennces, deccisioons, and expeeriennces of ssuch unitts ass houusehoolds or bbusinness firmms. OOtherrs innvolvve thhe beehaviior oof laarge grouups oof peeoplee, whhole induustriies, or ssuch areaas ass citties or rregioons. To ggive somee ideea off thee rannge oof quuestiions invoolvedd andd alsso thhe appproaach tthat thiss boook taakes in ddevellopinng a concceptuual fframeeworkk to handdle tthem, we shalll foolloww herre a sequuencee corrresppondiing tto thhe suuccesssivee latter cchaptters. The bbusinness firmm is, of courrse, mostt dirrectlly inntereestedd in whatt reggionaal ecconommics may havee to say abouut chhoosiing aa proofitaable locaationn in relaationn to giveen maarketts, ssourcces oof maateriials, labbor, servvicess, annd otther releevantt loccatioon faactorrs. AA nonnbusiinesss uniit suuch aas a housseholld, iinstiitutiion, or ppubliic faaciliity ffacess an anallogouus prrobleem off loccatioon chhoicee, thhoughh thee speecifiic loocatiion ffactoors tto bee connsideered may be rratheer diifferrent and lesss subbjectt to evalluatiion iin teerms of ppricee andd proofit. Ourr surrvey of rregioonal econnomiccs beeginss in Chappter 2 byy takking a miicroeeconoomic viewwpoinnt. TThat is, all locaationns, ccondiitionns, aand aactivvitiees otther thann thee inddividdual unitt in quesstionn willl bee takken aas giiven: Thee inddividdual unitt's pprobllem iis too deccide whatt loccatioon itt preeferss.The iimporrtancce off traanspoort aand ccommuunicaationn serrvicees inn dettermiiningg loccatioons (one of tthe tthreee fouundattion stonnes) willl beccome eviddent in CChaptter 22. Thhe reelatiion oof diistannce tto thhe coost oof thhe sppatiaal moovemeent oof gooods and servvicess, hooweveer, iis noot siimplee. Itt deppendss on suchh facctorss as routte laayoutts, sscalee ecoonomiies iin teerminnal aand ccarriiage operratioons, the lenggth oof thhe joourneey, tthe ccharaacterristiics oof thhe gooods and servvicess traansfeerredd, annd thhe teechniical capaabiliitiess of the avaiilablle trranspport and commmuniccatioon meedia. Chaapterr 3 iidenttifiees annd exxplaiins ssuch relaationns annd wiill eexploore ttheirr efffectss on the advaantagges oof diifferrent locaationns.In Chhapteer 4, an anallysiss of priccing deciisionns annd deemandd in a sppatiaal coontexxt iss devvelopped. Thiss anaalysiis exxtendds soome pprincciplees off ecoonomiics cconceerninng thhe thheoryy of priccing and outpput ddecissionss to the spattial dimeensioon. AAs a resuult, we sshalll be ablee to apprreciaate mmore fullly thhe reelatiionshhip bbetweeen ppriciing ppoliccies and the markket aarea of aa selller. We shalll fiind aalso thatt spaace pproviides yet anotther dimeensioon foor coompettitioon ammong selllers. Furrtherr, thhis aanalyysis willl serrve aas a basiis foor unndersstandding the locaationn pattternns off whoole iindusstriees. IIf ann inddividdual firmm or otheer unnit hhas aany bbut tthe mmost myoppic ooutloook, it wwill wantt to knoww sommethiing aaboutt shiifts in ssuch pattternss. Foor exxamplle, aa firrm prroduccing oil-drilllingg or refiineryy equuipmeent sshoulld bee intteressted in tthe llocattionaal shhiftss in the oil induustryy andd a bbusinness firmm enjjoyinng faavoraable acceess tto a markket sshoulld waant tto knnow wwhethher iit iss likkely thatt morre coompettitioon wiill bbe coomingg itss wayy.Whilee somme off thee isssues deveelopeed inn Chaapterr 4 cconceern ffactoors tthat conttribuute tto thhe diisperrsionn of selllers withhin aan inndusttry, Chappter 5 reecognnizess thee powwerfuul foorcess thaat maay drraw sselleers ttogetther in sspacee. Frrom aan annalyssis oof vaariouus tyypes of eeconoomiess of spattial conccentrratioon annd a desccripttion of eempirricall eviidencce beearinng onn theeir ssigniificaance, we shalll fiind tthat the natuure oof thhis ffounddatioon sttone of llocattion deciisionns caan haave iimporrtantt connsequuencees foor loocal areaas orr reggionss.Chaptter 66 inttroduuces expllicitt reccogniitionn of the factt thaat acctiviitiess reqquiree spaace. Spacce (oor diistannce, whicch iss simmply spacce inn onee dimmensiion) playys ann intteresstinggly ddual rolee in the locaationn of actiivitiies. On tthe oone hhand, disstancce reepressentss cosst annd innconvvenieence whenn theere iis a needd forr acccess (forr insstancce, iin coommutting to wwork or ddelivverinng a prodduct to tthe mmarkeet), and trannsporrt annd coommunnicattion reprresennt moore oor leess ccostlly waays oof suurmouuntinng thhe haandiccaps to hhumann intteracctionn impposedd by disttancee. Buut att thee samme tiime, everry huuman actiivityy reqquirees sppace for itseelf. In iintennsiveely ddevellopedd areeas, sheeer ellbowrroom as wwell as tthe aameniitiess of privvacy are scarrce aand vvaluaable. In thiss conntextt, sppace and disttancee apppear as aassetts raatherr thaan ass liaabiliitiess.Chaptter 66 treeats comppetittion for spacce ass a ffactoor heelpinng too dettermiine llocattion pattternss andd inddividdual choiices. Thee foccus hhere is sstilll morre "mmacroo" thhan tthe ddiscuussioon off loccatioon paatterrns ddevellopedd in preccedinng chhapteers, in tthat it iis cooncerrned withh thee spaatiall ordderinng off difffereent ttypess of
