当代日本社会分析与报告.pdf
25ISSN2185-8373人間環境電子版6（2013）Journal of Human Environmental Studies.Electronic Edition 6（2013）An Examination of the Causes and Consequences of Compensated Dating（Enjo-Kosai）in Contemporary Japanese SocietyGerald MclellanKeywordsWhat is Enjo-Kosai?Moral and Social issuesPornography and Women in Japanese SocietyTechnology and Mass MediaAbstract This paper examines the phenomenon of Enjo-Kosai which became a popular catchword in Japan in the late 90s and early part of the 21st century.Enjo-Kosai has been translated into English as compensated dating and schoolgirl prostitution.Firstly,the question of what exactly enjo-kosai is will be answered.Then moral and social issues behind the phenomenon will be discussed.The role of women and pornography in Japanese society will then be analysed before looking at the role played by the mass media and innovations in technology.現代日本社会 援助交際 原因結果検討援助交際社会的問題日本社会女性役割分析技術論文要旨論文、援助交際研究。援助交際、90年代後半21世紀初頭流行、報酬伴 女子学生売春 英語訳。援助交際一体何、背景社会的問題検討。技術革新役割検証、日本社会女性役割分析。The University of Human EnvironmentsNII-Electronic Library Service26人間環境電子版No.An Examination of the Causes and Consequences of Compensated Dating（Enjo-Kosai）in Contemporary Japanese SocietyGerald MclellanINTRODUCTIONProstitution is known as the worlds oldest profession and dates back to Sumerian times.“Worldwide,an estimated 300 million women regularly have sex with 5 to 10 partners during a typical working day（International Labour Organization,1998,quoted in Rhawn,2004,154）.Throughout history,men in positions of power or those in the public eye have kept mistresses or have had dealings with prostitutes.US presidents Carter,Jeff erson,and Kennedy;Mitterrand of France and Prince Charles of Great Britain can all be accused of being involved in extra-marital aff airs.So why should the phenomenon of enjo-ksai in Japan be a matter for concern and public outcry?Enjo-ksai has been translated as schoolgirl prostitution and in this paper the above question will be answered and the writer will show that enjo-ksai does indeed warrant public outcry as it involves,in many cases,sex between adult males and adolescent girls who are sometimes as young as 13.（Rhawn,2004,156）cites estimates from the International Labour Organization of the number of young Japanese women engaged in prostitution in Japan in 1998 as 100,000.This paper aims to show that young girls in Japan have become the object of male sexual desire simply because of the fact that they are cheap and off er less resistance to perverted sexual practices,and because teenage girls have featured more and more frequently in pornographic material and have been portrayed in the media as sexual objects.1.What Is Enjo-ksai?Enjo-ksai is the term used to describe a date between a schoolgirl of junior or senior high school age-and even of elementary school age-with a mature,middle-aged man.The schoolgirl receives a monetary payment for her time and anything else she happens to part with,for example her underwear,socks or other garments.In Japan there is a huge market value placed on such items and the more times the girl has spent wearing them the greater the amount of money she can receive.（Constantine,1994,198）.Constantine also writes that the highest prices paid are for the panties of pre-pubescent teens and The University of Human EnvironmentsNII-Electronic Library ServiceAn Examination of the Causes and Consequences of Compensated Dating（Enjo-Kosai）in Contemporary Japanese Society27this gives an indication of the way in which these very young girls are now viewed by adult males.In 1993 vending machines appeared that catered to the obsession with soiled undergarments.There was no direct statute banning the trade but after being met with public outcry,three traders were cunningly charged under the Antique Dealers Law,which requires dealers in second-hand goods to get permission from the local authority,and the panties disappeared from the streets.（Herbert,2004,1）.The market for young girls and their soiled clothing became more sinister as the young girls themselves began to be targeted.Enjo-ksai has been translated into English as Compensated-Dating and as Teenage Prostitution.Which of the two English translations is more accurate is diffi cult to determine as one of the dilemmas for anthropology of global-local topics is that they defy conventional practices of bounding and naming the cultural subject of study（Marcus,1995,425,quoted in Kelsky,2001,5）.However,in the case of enjo-ksai,both terms can be used as they both accurately defi ne what transpires.To reiterate,when the term compensated-dating is used,we in the English-speaking world,imagine the scenario of a young girl being compensated（paid a sum of money or being presented with an expensive gift）to go on a date with an adult.Whether or not she consents to exchange any items of her clothing in return for money still could not be construed as prostitution.When considering the term teenage prostitution we entertain thoughts of both parties engaging in sexual intercourse in return for one of the two parties involved being paid a sum of money.An outside third party would be a middleman of some description,for example a pimp,mafi a member,owner of a telephone club or other such establishment.The foreign media prefers to use the term teenage prostitution when referring to enjo-ksai as this sensationalizes the headlines and sells more newspapers.However,it is probably the more accurate of the two translations.Mamoru Fukutomi,Psychologist Professor at Tokyo Gakugei University,conducted a survey of 960 randomly chosen high school girls in October of 1997.Of these 960 girls,600 or 63%responded to the survey.Only thirty girls or 5%of the 600 admitted to taking part in enjo-ksai.Of these thirty girls only 2.3%claimed to have had sexual intercourse,2.3%said they had engaged in sexual activities other than sexual intercourse（for example,kissing or oral sex）and 4.8%said they had merely talked or had drinks.（Asahi News,1998,1）.As reasons they gave for selling their time and their bodies to older men,thirteen girls said they wanted money,four did it because a man suggested it,three girls thought it caused no problems with anyone else,three did it for fun,and two did it because they knew they could quit at any time.One girl said she wanted stimulation,another was lonely,another just let it happen without much thought,while another said she needed to blow off some steam,and another girl wanted to have sex.In the survey,the respondents were allowed to give multiple answers（Asahi News,1998,1）.The University of Human EnvironmentsNII-Electronic Library Service28人間環境電子版No.Chart1.1The overwhelming reason cited for engaging in enjo-ksai is for monetary gain.There is a tremendous pressure placed upon teenagers in Japan and,especially,teenage girls,to own the proper brand named product.This pressure,combined with the fi nancial rewards obtained from enjo-ksai,ultimately entices the girls into doing it.Enjo-ksai practitioners can be categorized into three groups,namely:those who engage in full sexual intercourse or teenage prostitutes,those who engage in some form of sexual activity other than intercourse,and those who take part in what would be considered a true form of dating service or compensated dating.The above survey seems to suggest that the number of girls who had engaged in enjo-ksai and had had sex and those who had engaged in enjo-ksai and had engaged in activities of a sexual nature,but not actual intercourse are split evenly.Enjo-ksai emerged towards the end of Japans 1980s economic boom.（Herbert,2004,1）,although（Morrison,3,quoted in Nguyen,2004,1）writes:The number of teenage prostitutes began to climb around 1974.By 1984 the number reached alarming levels and is still increasing.The author does not defi ne what he means by alarming levels but in the same article he informs the reader that“National Police Agency statistics for 1995 show that 5,841 female minors were involved in telephone club liaisons or other sex-related activities.According to the article,this fi gure is an increase of 16.2%from the previous year.If these fi gures are correct then the levels are indeed worrying as they indicate that although media hype focusing on enjo-ksai has diminished,the phenomenon has not disappeared.The exact origins of enjo-ksai are diffi cult to ascertain,but the media began covering it in the early to mid-1990s.As（Herbert,2004,2）,writes:It was not until the mid-90s that enjo-ksai was recognized by the Japanese press and they compensated for this sluggishness with an amazing bout of hysteria.After the collapse of the bubble economy,young girls could no longer depend on their parents to provide them with a source of income and were prevented by their parents from being money were asked no harm fun quit easily others14121086420The University of Human EnvironmentsNII-Electronic Library ServiceAn Examination of the Causes and Consequences of Compensated Dating（Enjo-Kosai）in Contemporary Japanese Society29engaged in part-time employment whilst still at school.The arrival of telephone clubs gave these girls a place where they could go and wait to be contacted by middle-aged men who would call the club and request to speak to the girl.If the conversation went smoothly the couple would agree upon a price the man would ultimately pay to recruit the services of the girl as his date for a particular evening,hence the term compensated dating.The media and consumer industries in Japan are extremely powerful and they play a sinister role in persuading these girls that they must have the right look.Teens express themselves in their clothing and gear,and commune with or diverge from each other along trend and fashion lines.In Japan,consumer industries and the media are especially aware of this marketing secret and provide the child not just with directions and opportunities to buy,but also directly market teen communication and acceptability.（White,1993,103）.In a school environment,if some girls are on the game and earn enough money to be able to aff ord the right clothes it will have a domino eff ect of encouraging other girls within the school to earn enough money to do likewise.2.Is Enjo-ksai a Social/Moral or a Health Issue?a）Enjo-ksai as a Social/Moral IssueEnjo-ksai has been defi ned as a social issue caused by a number of diff erent problems which,when combined,creates an environment conducive to the phenomenon.These problems include but are not confi ned to the following:the collapse of the bubble economy,lack of proper sex education at home and in schools,the introduction of mobile telephones and personal computers,the mass media,the role of the female in Japanese society and,as previously mentioned,the pressure of consumerism on young schoolgirls are all contributing factors which must be looked at individually.However,in a number of cases a lack of moral values has been cited as the main contributory factor in creating the problem and in a keynote speech at the Second World Congress against Sexual Exploitation of Children in Yokohama,Japan,the Minister of Justice Ms.Moriyama blamed the lack of morals and also gave her defi nition of enjo-ksai when she said:Japan,for one,has been worried about the worsening situation of commercial sexual exploitation of children in the midst of the diversifi cation and globalization of society.For example,we Japanese have a Japanese word enjo-ksai,which is symbolic of the lack of ethics and morals in Japanese society.This is a word invented by the mass media which means compensated dating,that is,a child offers sexual intercourse in return for pecuniary benefi ts such as money,and this word has the effect of weakening the impression of the immoral or anti-social nature of the act of prostitution.The dissemination of this word enjo-ksai clearly shows the expansion of the merchandising of sex with a child.Also,there is the deplorable tendency of the media to treat it as a kind of fashion.（Moriyama,1996,2）.In this excerpt from the speech,Moriyama clearly believes that the term compensated dating does not comprehensibly illustrate the gravity of the problem.The University of Human EnvironmentsNII-Electronic Library Service30人間環境電子版No.b）Enjo-ksai as a Health IssueAlthough enko-ksai has primarily been defi ned as a social/moral issue,there are a growing number of doctors who believe that it is certainly a health issue which should be taken more seriously.Because girls who engage in enjo-ksai are becoming younger,they tend to be less aware of the implications or outcomes of their actions.According to a large number of reports,a high percentage of the girls who have sexual intercourse during enjo-ksai do not engage in safe sex nor do the men they go to bed with.Kunio Kitamura,director of the Japan Family Planning Association stated at a symposium on HIV/AIDS held at the United Nations University in Tokyo that Japan is one of the few developed nations where both the rate of teenage abortions and the number of people infected by sexually transmitted diseases are on the rise（Hasegawa,2003,1）.The same report also quotes him as blaming the situation primarily on the government which,he says,seems to avoid the issue of sex as if it is afraid to wake a sleeping child.Furthermore,according to Professor J.Sean Curtis of the Japanese Red Cross University,the Ministry of Health and Labour released fi gures of a survey it conducted in 2002,showing that cases of Chlamydia have nearly tripled in the last decade hitting 37,028 in 2000（Curtin,2002,1）.Quoting from the same survey,he states that the number of women having abortions have risen by 80%since 1995.Other data shows that only teenagers are experiencing a rise in the number of abortions,and that the fi gures overall have declined since 1995.Taku Kato,director of an AIDS research team at the Ministry of Health stated that there is a possibility that many more teenagers are carriers and are not refl ected in the statistics（National AIDS Clearinghouse,1996,quoted in The Wall Street Journal,1）.Also,according to Masako Kihara,an AIDS expert and associate professor at Kyoto University some 20%to 30%of Japanese sixteen year olds have had sex and nearly a quarter of these have had four or more partners.As a result,both HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections-such as Chlamydia-which can cause infertility and makes the infected person more vulnerable to HIV if they have sex with an HIV partner-are on the rise among young people.Of new HIV cases reported in 2003,at least 33%were with people under 29 years old（Reuters,21 September,2004）.Many STIs are asymptomatic or the symptoms only show up later as the infection progresses.The number of women infected with an STI is very much higher than the number of men.Figures vary,but 1：3 is often cited in medical literature.The above data helps to reinforce the argument that enjo-ksai is both a social/moral,and a health issue,and that the full eff ects of
