优秀英语写作--段落结构课件.ppt

PARAGRAPHWRITINGEnglishParagraphWriting2.1ParagraphStructure2.2ParagraphUnity2.3ParagraphCoherence2.4SentenceVariety段落是构成文章的一组句子。段落必须表达完整的意思：或描写事物（describesomething），或争论某事（argueaboutsomething），或对某事提出疑问（questionsomething），或要求什么（demandsomething），或给事物下定义（definesomething），或驳斥某观点（rejectsomething）。2.1ParagraphStructureOneEnglishparagraphusuallyincludesthefollowingthreeparts:(1)TopicSentenceSupporting/DevelopingSentences(3)ConcludingSentenceParagraphStructureModelTopicSentencelSupporting Sentence 1 lSupporting Sentence 2lSupporting Sentence 3lSupporting Sentence 4ConcludingSentenceSampleWeallknowthatcigarettesmokingisadangeroushabitbecauseitcauseshealthproblemsDoctorssayitcanbeadirectcauseofcancerofthelungsandthroatandcanalsocontributetocancerofotherorgansInaddition，itcanbringaboutotherhealthproblemssuchasheartandlungdiseasesItisclearlyidentifiedasoneofthechiefcausesofdeathinoursocietyTSDSCS(1)HowtoWriteaGoodTopicSentenceThreeessentialpoints:1.主题句必须是一个完整的句子2.由主题词和主题思想的表述两部分构成3.只是一种概括性的陈述而不提供具体的细节作者的首要任务是让读者知道所写段落要谈的是什么，这就是每段的主题句的作用。因此主题句应该阐明段落的主要思想，所有支持主题句的细节和描述都与这一主要思想有关。主题句的三种形式主题句的三种形式1）肯定句（AffirmativeSentence）Example：Theneedforwildlifeprotectionisgreaternowthaneverbefore2）反诘句（RhetoricalSentence）Example：Howdoyouthinkpeoplewillsolvetheproblemofwildlifeprotection？3）不完整句（Fragments）Example：Andtheworkingman？初学者最好使用肯定句作为主题句。Whichisagoodtopicsentence?1.Americanfoodisterrible.2.AmericanfoodistastelessandgreasybecauseAmericansusetoomanycanned,frozen,andprepackagedfoodsandbecauseeverythingisfriedinoilorbutter.3.Americanfoodistastelessandgreasy.主题句的位置主题句的位置主题句出现的位置有以下四种情况：1）段首（Atthebeginning）主题句经常居于段首，以便读者浏览主题句就可掌握文章的概要。这个位置适用于写提供信息或解释观点的段落。2）段末（Attheend）用推理方法展开段落时，主题句往往位于句末。3）段中（Inthemiddle）有时为了使段落多样化，主题句也可以居于段中。4）隐含（Implied）有时候，尤其在写叙述性或描写性段落时，当所有的细节都围绕着一个显而易见的主题时可以不用主题句。Whereisthetopicsentence?TheAmericansandtheBritishnotonlyspeakthesamelanguagebutalsosharealargenumberofsocialcustomsForexample，inbothAmericaandEngland，peopleshakehandswhentheymeeteachotherforthefirsttimeAlso，mostEnglishmenwillopenadoorforawomanoroffertheirseattoawoman，andsowillmostAmericansPromptnessisimportantbothinEnglandandinAmericaThatis，ifadinnerinvitationisfor7oclock，thedinnerguesteitherarrivesclosetothattimeorcallsuptoexplainhisdelayPractice:Identify which is the topic sentence:Systolic(收缩的)pressurebetween140and160indicatesborderlinehypertension.Intheusualbloodpressurereading,thesystolicmeasurementisgivenfirstandisthehigherofthetwo.Systolicpressureistakenwhentheheartiscontractingtopumpblood;diastolic(舒张的舒张的)pressureistakenwhentheheartisrestingbetweenbeats.Bloodpressuremeasurementhastwocomponents:systolicanddiastolic.Normalbloodpressureisasystolicmeasurementof140,andwhenthesystolicpressureis160orhigher,thenhypertensionexists.Exercise1-1Directions：Readthefollowingparagraphsandfindoutthetopicsentence，thesupportingdetailsandtheconcludingsentence，ifthereisoneTheneedforwildlifeprotectionisgreaternowthaneverbeforeAboutathousandspeciesofanimalsareindangerofextinction,，andtherateatwhichtheyarebeingdestroyedhasincreasedWithmammals，forinstance，therateofextinctionisnowaboutonespecieseveryyear；fromAD1to1800，theratewasaboutonespecieseveryfiftyyearsEverywhere，menaretryingosolvetheproblemofpreservingwildlifewhilecaringatthesametimefortheworldsgrowingpopulation关于写主题句的建议关于写主题句的建议1）要写合乎语法的句子1：TwocausesoftheAmericanCivilWar这个句子是个不完整的句子，不合乎语法，因此不能用作主题句2：ThereweretwocausesthatledtotheAmericanCivilWar重写后的句子合乎语法，是个较好的主题句。2）要使用限写词限定主题为了正确表达观点，好的主题句经常使用关键词或词组，即限制词（controllers）限制这一观点。Airtravelismoreconvenientthantrainforatleastthreereasons上例主题句我们得知作者将要写“airtravel”（topic），他将要把“train”（aspect）和“airtravel”作比较，并且陈述“reasons”。由此可见，作者在“aspect”（方面）和“reason”（原因）两方面限制他的主题。3）要注意主题的可写性所定的主题不能太笼统，也不能太具体。Example6：Letmetellyousomethingaboutoverpopulation这个句子太笼统，作为一个段落的主题太大，难于驾驭。Example7：Whyhastheworldpopulationbeenincreasingsorapidlyinthelastdecades？这个句子是个较好的主题句，作者用“thereasonsforoverpopulationinthelastdecades”，从“原因”（cause）和“时间”（time）两方面限制了主题，能在一个段落内论述。Supporting/developingsentencesarethekeywordsorgroupofwordsthattellwhatthefocuswillbeindevelopingparagraph.Concretesupport(2)Supporting/DevelopingSentencesMyroommatePaulpossessesthecharacteristicsofgoodstudent.Oneofhischaracteristicsisalwaysbeingpreparedforclasses.Forexample,whenhisphilosophyprofessorassignsaclassdiscussionontheideasofKant,hegoestothelibraryanddoesextensiveresearchonthesubject.Inaddition,whenhisEnglishinstructorassignsanout-of-classessay,hebringstoclassthefinalcopyofanessaythathehasrevisedseveraltimes.Can you think of some developing sentences for this topic?SmokingcigarettescanbeanexpensivehabitCigarettescostaboutseventy-fivecents.Theaveragesmokersmokestwopacksaday.Theannualexpenseforthissmokeris$547.50.Thesmokermustalsopayforextracleaningofcarpets,furniture,andclothes.Smokingwouldcausemanydiseases,whichwillcostthesmokersalotofmoneytoseeadoctorandcurethediseases.ActivityTry developing the topic sentences.Illustrate your personality with specific examples.Iamaverysensitiveperson.Iamaveryindependentperson.IthinkIwouldbeagoodfriend.Iamaverysensitiveperson,andthatsgoodtosomedegree.I feel everyone should be able to feel orunderstandwhatothersaregoingthrough.Butwhenyou hurt,cry,or areunhappyfor peopleyou dontknow,or for a movie that is not real,then I thinkthatsalittletoosensitive.ThatsthewayIam.Iamaveryindependentperson.Imustdothingsformyself.I dont like people doing things for me,orhelping me,or giving me things.Its not that I dontappreciateit,becauseIdo.Ijustfeelthatwhensomeonedoessomethingforyou,youowethem,andifthereisone thing I dont like to feel,its that I owe anyoneanything.IthinkIwouldbeagoodfriend.IwoulddoalmostanythingforsomeoneIlike,andwouldshareorgiveanything I have.Im very caring and understanding.Peopletrustmewiththeirsecrets,andtheyrerightfordoingsobecauseInevertellanysecretthatistoldtome.ImalwaystheretohelpinanywaythatIcan.Allyouhavetodoisask.(3)HowtoWriteaGoodConcludingSentenceAconcludingsentencemayrestatethemainideainfreshwords,summarizetheparagraph,evaluatethesupportingdetails,oraddaninsighttoshowtheimportanceofthemainpoint.使用表示段落结尾的转承信号词，如“inconclusion,insummary,finally,inbrief,insum,toconclude,allinall”等。对段落要点加以总结。对主题加以评论，给读者留下深刻的印象。Smallcarssuck.TopicsentenceImsixfeetfour,andwhenIsitinaVolkswagen,mykneesarecrammedintomychestandImhunchedforward,myheadscrapingthetop.IfIhavetorideveryfat,thebaseofmyneckachesandthebacksofmythighscrampup.Ialsodontliketheirlightbodies.Idontlikebeingblownaroundonthefreewaybystrongwindsorbigtrucks,andifIgetinanaccident,IknowIllcomeoutsecondbest.Finally,whenIneedalittlepoweronamountaingradeorforpassing,thosefour-cylinderenginesdontdeliver.Inaword,smallcarsaretoouncomfortable,toodangerous,andtooinefficientforme.ConcludingsentenceActivityWrite a concluding sentence based on the given outline.TopicSentence:Therearethreethingsthatwouldmakemethehappiestpersonintheworld.BodyPart:A happy family lifeA satisfying careerInner peace and securityConcludingSentence:Inconclusion,ifIcouldhaveawarmhome,achallengingjob,andinnerstrength,Iwouldbecontentedandsatisfiedwithmylife.PracticeFinish writing the concluding sentences:Producers make more goods when prices are high,andconsumersbuymoregoodswhenpricesarelow.Aspricesgoup,producersmakemoregoodsbecausetheycan make more money for their goods.As prices godown,consumersbuymoregoodsbecauseofthelowprices.Thisshowsusthe quantity of goods will directly influence the prices and the sales volume.PracticeTry to appreciate the following paragraph,and identify：(1)Topic sentence(2)Supporting sentences(3)Concluding sentencesNearly all living creatures manage some form ofcommunication.Thedancepatternsofbeesintheirhivehelptopointthewaytodistantflowerfieldsorannouncesuccessfulforaging.Malesticklebackfishregularlyswimupside-downtoindicateoutrageinacourtship contest.Male deer and lemurs markterritorial ownership by rubbing their own bodysecretionsonboundarystonesortrees.Everyonehasseenafrighteneddogputhistailbetweenhislegsandrun in panic.We,too,use gestures,expressions,postures,andmovementtogiveourwordspoint.2.2ParagraphUnity段落的一致性是指文章基于一个统一的主题，段落内容应保持一致，每个段落只能阐述一个中心思想，每一个句子都应与主题句密切相关。Activity1Identify whether the following paragraphs are unified.Pick out any sentence which is not related to the controlling idea of the paragraph.MyFavoriteHobbiesIenjoy3hobbiesinmyfreetime.Myfirsthobbyisplayingwith my 2-year-old son.I especially like to teach him newwords.HelistensverycarefullytomeandcopieswhatIsay.Ialsoliketotakehimforwalks.Whenhissmallhandsclingtomyhand,Ifeelsoclosetohim,andhiswidesmilewarmsmyheart.Ifweplayball,hegetsexcitedandscreamswithjoy.Unfortunately,theballmakestheneighborsdogbark.MysecondhobbyiswatchingTVwithmyson.WewatchSesame Street together almost everyday.It helps us learnEnglish.The English on the news is too fast and reallyfrustratesme.Mysonsitsbesideme,andsometimeswelaughuntilthetearscome._Mythirdhobbyisplantingflowersinmygarden.WhenIamwateringtheflowers,IfeelajoylikethejoyIfeelwhenIamfeedingmyson.WhenIseetheplantsandflowersgrowupinchbyinch,Ithinkofhowmysonisgrowingup,too.Iwishthesnailswouldstopeatingmyplants,though.These3hobbiesfillmewithaspecialpleasurelikenoneIhaveeverexperiencedbefore._2.3ParagraphCoherencecohere表示“tostick”或“toholdtogether”。连贯，一是指结构上的连贯；二是指内容上的连贯。具有连贯性的段落中每个句子都很合乎逻辑地与下个句子相连接。TwoWaystoObtainCoherenceTransitionsignalsLogicalorderChronologicalOrderSpatialOrderOrderofImportance Cohesive DevicesTransitional devices Pronoun reference The use of synonyms Repetition of key wordsParallel运用关联词表达时间顺序、递进、转折、让步、比较、对比、举例、总结等用代词指代前面提到过的人或事用同义词表达与前面同样的意义，使得用词不单调重复关键词平行结构 Illustration Time sequencethen,first,second,third,finallyAdditionin addition,moreover,besides,alsoConcessiongranted,naturally,of courseComparisonalso,in the same way,likewise,similarlyContrasthowever,in contrast,instead,nevertheless,notwithstanding,on the contrary,on the other hand,otherwiseExamplefor example,for instanceSummaryall in all,altogether,finally,in brief,in conclusion,in short,in summary,to summarizePlease analyze and identify the transition devices used in the following paragraph.Transitions are the glue that holds a paragraph together.Thesedevicesleadthereaderfromsentencetosentence,smoothingoverthe gaps between by indicating the relationship between thesentences.Ifthisglueismissing,theparagraphwillalmostinevitablysoundchoppyorchildish,evenifeverysentenceinitrespondstoasingletopiccommitment.However,transitionsarenotsubstitutesfortopic unity:like most glue,they are most effective when joiningsimilar objects,or,in this case,similar ideas.For example,in aparagraphdescribingachickenegg,notransitioncouldbridgethegap created by the inclusion of a sentence concerned with navallossesintheCivilWar.Inotherwords,transitionscancallattentiontothetopicrelationshipsbetweensentences,buttheycannotcreatethoserelationships.PracticeOtherCoherenceDevicesAnaphora(指代)CoherenceThroughRepetition(重复)They decided to begin again:to begin hoping,to begin trying to change,to begin working toward a goal.During those years when I was just learning to speak,my mother and father addressed me only in Spanish;in Spanish I learned to reply.Read the paragraph below carefully,and then write an appropriate connector in each blank.TheunfriendlyappearanceoftheofficecausedmetobealmostasfrightenedasdidthefactthatIwasbeingcalledbeforeacollegeofficialtoexplainmybehavior._wasthedeansdesk.Veryneatlyarrangedstacksofpaperscoveredtheentiretop._wasawindowthroughwhichthesunshonebrightly.As the dean made no move to close the blind,I had to choosebetweenstaringguiltilyatthespotlessfloororbeingblindedbythemercilesslight._ stood several neatly arranged and dusted filing cabinetsprobably filled with folders of students who had been disciplined forunacceptablebehavior.Afterafewseconds,thedeaninvitedmetositinthepolishedchair _ of his desk.From thisuncomfortableposition,Itriedtoexplainmybehavior.NowthatIlookbackonthisexperience,Ifindthatnothingwasmorefrighteningaboutthesituationthantheofficeitself.ItThereThereinfrontActivityRead the following paragraphs carefully and answer questions.(1)Whatisthecontrollingidea?(2)Whatistheprimarymethodusedtoarrangedetails:timeorder,spatialorder,ororderofimportance?(3)Howmanydetailsarethereintheparagraph?PracticeInmy25yearsasasecretary,Ihavehadtomasterthreedifferentkindsofwritingmachines.Ibeganmycareeronthe manual typewriter.I soon learned to handle itefficientlyandtypedbetweensixty-fiveandseventywordsper minute.Then ten years later,I found myself beingforcedtoadapttoanelectrictypewriter.Atfirst,IsworeIpreferredamanualbecauseIhadtroublerememberingnottohitthekeysashard.Also,ittookmeseveraldaystoquitreachingfor acarriagereturn.After awhile,however,Iwouldnothaveconsideredreturningtoamanual.Recently,I was persuaded to give up my electrictypewriter for awordprocessor.Alwaysresistanttochange,Icomplainedin the beginning about having to remember the newkeyboard and the commands.But after using the wordprocessorforlessthansixmonths,IdontbelieveIwouldconsiderreturningtotheageoftheelectrictypewriter.2.4SentenceVarietyVariedsentencestructuresVariedsentencebeginningsParallelstructureVarieddictionVariedsentencestructures长短句交长短句交替替Writingisaskill.Writingisaskilllikedriving,typing,orcooking.Likeanyskill,itcanbelearnedifyoudecidethatyouaregoingtolearnandthenreallyworkatit.Thisbookwillgiveyoutheextensivepracticeneededtodevelopyourwritingskills.VariedSentencebeginningsProud and relieved,theywatchedtheirdaughterreceiveherdiploma.Hungrily,theboydevouredhislunch.Famous for having discovered penicillin,AlexanderFleminwasaBritishscientist.ParallelstructureWiththisfaithwewillbeabletoworktogether,topraytogether,tostruggletogether,togotojailtogether,tostandupforfreedomtogether,knowingthatwewillbefreeoneday.-MartinLutherKing“Ihaveadream”shallhaveanewbirthoffreedomandthatgovernmentofthepeople,bythepeople,forthepeople,shallnotperishfromtheearth.-AbrahamLincolnAppreciate the varied sentence length in the following paragraph.(1)Thelifeofastudentishard.(2)Itishardbecausethereistoomuchworkandnotenoughtime.(3)Manypeople,however,thinkjusttheoppositeistrue.(4)Theythinkstudentsspendmostoftheirtimeprotesting,carousing,andgettingintoallsortsoftrouble.(5)I must admit that these people are not entirelymistaken,fortherearestudentswhocometouniversitysolelytohaveagoodtime.(6)ButIhardlythinkthischaracterizesmoststudents.(7)Itcertainlydoesntcharacterizethosewhotaketheirstudiesseriously.(8)Itdoesntcharacterizeme.尽管太多的短句看上去不连贯，但短句在长句之后可以起到强调作用。在这段文字中，最短的句子第1、6、和8句都是很强调的句子。第6句特别强，因为它与第5句对照，这一句用最长的句子进行强调。VariedSentencesAppreciate the varied sentence structures in the following passages.Thewayfootballandbasketballareplayedisasinterestingastheplayers.Becausefootballisagameofprecision,eachplayisdiagrammedtoaccomplishacertaingoal.Basketball,however,isagameofendurance.Infact,abasketballgamelookslikeatrackmeet;theteamthatdropsofexhaustionfirstloses.Basketballplayersareoftencomparedtoartists,theirmovesandslamdunksaretheirmasterpieces.此处运用了名词、转承词语以及从句开头的句子，灵活多样。Becausewritingisaskill,itmakessensethatthemoreyoupracticewriting,thebetteryouwillwrite.Oneexcellentwayt