二语习得理论课件.ppt
Theoretical Approaches toSecond Language LearningnDifferences in Learning L1&L2nBehaviorismnInnatismnInformation ProcessingnConnectionismnThe Interactionist Position2023/1/81aDifferences in Learning L1&L2nA child or adult learning a second language is different from a child acquiring a first language in terms of both1)learner characteristicsand2)learning conditions2023/1/82aDifferences in Learning L1&L2Learner Characteristics1.Knowledge of another language2.Cognitive maturity3.Metalinguistic awareness4.Knowledge of the world5.Nervousness about speaking2023/1/83aDifferences in Learning L1&L2Learning Conditions6.Freedom to be silent7.Ample time&contact8.Corrective feedback:(form)grammar and pronunciation9.Corrective feedback:(meaning)word choice10.Modified input2023/1/84aDifferences in Learning L1&L2nSummary:SLA(Second Language Acquisition)theories need to account for language acquisition by learners with a variety of characteristics and learning in a variety of contexts.2023/1/85a Theoretical Approaches to Language Acquisition 2023/1/86aBehaviorismnSkinner:language behavior is the production of correct responses to stimuli through reinforcement.nFour characteristics of behaviorism:1)imitation,2)practice,3)reinforcement,and 4)habit information nLado(1964):CAA person learning an L2 starts off with the habits formed in the L1 and these habits interfere with the new ones needed for the L2.2023/1/87aAmerican Structurism and BehaviorismnDominant theories in linguistics and psychology within the USA throughout the 1940s and 1950s.nIts psychological base is behaviorism and linguistic base is structuralism.nThe goal of CA:to discover the problems that foreign language students would encounter in the learning process.And to increase the efficiency in L2 teaching and testing.2023/1/88aNegative TransfernLado proclaimed that most of the difficulties originated from the differences between L1 and L2.He believed that the more different the two languages are,the more difficult learning would be,and by knowing this,we could predict what errors would appear.2023/1/89aa strong and a weak form of CAnLado and his followers even provided the degree of differences between two languages.There existed a strong and a weak form of Contrastive Analysis(Wardhaugh 1970).The strong form claims that all L2 errors can be predicated by identifying the differences between the target language and the learners L1.The weak form of the hypothesis claims to be diagnostic.(To check where could be erroneous).2023/1/810aContrastive Analysis(CA)nContrastive Analysis was rooted in the practical need to teach a L2 in the most effective way possible.Its psychological base is behaviorism and linguistic base is structuralism.nRobert Lado:advocated the approach of Contrastive Analysis in his first Book,Linguistics Across Culture(1957)2023/1/811aBehaviorismnBehaviorism was often linked to the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis(CAH):It predicts that where there are similarities between the L1 and the target language,the learner will acquire target-language structures with ease;where there are differences,the learner will have difficulty.2023/1/812aMore Definition of CA nCA:is an approach to the study of SLA which involve predicting and explaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.n It was heavily influenced by theories which is dominant in linguistics and psychology within the USA throughout the 1940s and 1950s.2023/1/813aBehaviorismnCriticisms about the CAH:Though a learners L1 influences the acquisition of an L2,1.Not all errors predicted by the CAH are actually made.2.Many of the errors which learners make are not predictable on the basis of the CAH.3.Some errors are similar across learners from a variety of L1 backgrounds.2023/1/814aBehaviorismnSummary:The L1 influence may not simply be a matter of the transfer of habits,but a more subtle and complex process of identifying points of similarity,weighing the evidence in support of some particular feature,and even reflecting about whether a certain feature seems to belong in the structure of the L2.2023/1/815aInnatismnCompetence vs.Performance nUniversal Grammar(UG)in relation to second language developmentnKrashens“monitor model”2023/1/816aInnatism:Competence vs.Performance语言能力对语言运用nCompetence语言能力:It refers to the knowledge which underlies our ability to use language.nPerformance语言运用:It refers to the way a person actually uses language in listening,speaking,reading,and writing.Performance is subject to variations due to inattention or fatigue whereas competence(at least for the mature native speaker)is more stable.2023/1/817aInnatism:Competence vs.PerformancenSLA(second language acquisition)researchers from the UG perspective are more interested in the language competence(i.e.,knowledge of complex syntax)of advanced learners rather than in the simple language of early stage learners.Their investigations often involve comparing the judgments of grammaticality（合乎语法性）made by L2 and L1 learners,rather than observations of actual language performance(i.e.,use of language).2023/1/818aInnatism:Universal GrammarnHow UG works in L2 development:Two different views-1)The nature and availability of UG in L2 acquisition is no different from that which is hypothesized to guide L1 learners.Adult L2 learners neither need nor benefit from error correction and metalinguistic information(元语言信息).These things change only the superficial appearance of language performance and do not affect the underlying competence of the new language.2023/1/819aInnatism:Universal GrammarnHow UG works in L2 development:Two different views-2)UG may be present and available to L2 learners,but its exact nature has been altered by the prior acquisition of the first language.L2 learners need to be given some explicit information about what is not grammatical（不符合语法规则的）in the L2.Otherwise,they may assume that some structures of the L1 have equivalents in the L2 when,in fact,they do not.2023/1/820aInnatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe acquisition-learning hypothesisnThe monitor hypothesisnThe natural order hypothesisnThe input hypothesisnThe affective filter hypothesis2023/1/821aInnatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe acquisition-learning hypothesis(1)nAcquisition:we acquire L2 knowledge as we are exposed to samples of the L2 which we understand with no conscious attention to language form.It is a subconscious and intuitive（凭直觉获知的）process.nLearning:we learn the L2 via a conscious process of study and attention to form and rule learning.2023/1/822aInnatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe acquisition-learning hypothesis(2)1.Krashen argues that“acquisition”is a more important process of constructing the system of a language than“learning”because fluency in L2 performance is due to what we have acquired,not what we have learned.2.Learning cannot turn into acquisition.Many learners may“know”rules but fail to apply them.Learners need to do as much acquiring as possible in order to achieve communicative fluency.2023/1/823aInnatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe monitor hypothesis(1)nThe acquired system acts to initiate the speakers utterances and is responsible for fluency and intuitive judgments about correctness,whereas the learned system acts only as a monitor,making minor changes and polishing what the acquired system has produced.2023/1/824aInnatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe monitor hypothesis(2)nLearners use the monitor only when they are focused more on being correct than on what they have to say,when they have sufficient time to search their memory for the relevant rules,and when they actually know those rules.nSince knowing the rules only helps the speaker supplement what has been acquired,the focus of language teaching should be on creating conditions for acquisition rather than learning.2023/1/825aInnatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe monitor hypothesis(3)Criticisms:nIt is very difficult to show evidence of“monitor”use.It is impossible to determine what has been produced by the acquired system and what is the result of monitor use.nKrashens claim that language which is produced quickly and apparently spontaneously must have been acquired rather than learned leaves us with a somewhat circular definition.2023/1/826aInnatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe natural order hypothesis(1)nL2 learners acquire the features of the TL in predictable sequences.Contrary to intuition,the rules which are easiest to state(and thus to learn)are not necessarily the first to be acquired.e.g.the rule for adding an s to third person singular verbs in the present tense 2023/1/827aInnatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe natural order hypothesis(2)nThe natural order is independent of the order in which rules have been learned in language classes(based on Krashens studies of grammatical morphemes).nSubsequent research has confirmed that learners pass through sequences or stages in L2 development.2023/1/828aInnatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe input hypothesis(1)The learner acquires language in only one way by exposure to comprehensible input.If the input contains forms and structures just beyond the learners current level of competence in the language(“i+1”),then both comprehension and acquisition will occur.2023/1/829aInnatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe input hypothesis(2)The comprehensible input(“i+1”)hypothesis appeals to intuition,but has not been substantiated by empirical studies.e.g.undirected pleasure reading as a source of comprehensible input.2023/1/830aInnatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe affective filter hypothesis(1)n“Affect”refers to such things as motives,needs,attitudes,and emotional states.nThe“affective filter”is an imaginary barrier,which prevents learners from acquiring language from the available input.nDepending on the learners state of mind or disposition,the filter limits what is noticed and what is acquired.A learner who is stressed,upset,anxious,self-conscious,or unmotivated may“filter out”input,making it unavailable for acquisition.2023/1/831aInnatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe affective filter hypothesis(2)nIt appears to have immediate implications for classroom practice.Teachers should help students to lower the affective filter in language learning.nIt also appeals intuitively to those who have tried unsuccessfully to learn a language in conditions where they felt stressed or uncomfortable.nHowever,it is difficult to be sure that affective factors cause the differences in language acquisition.2023/1/832aInnatism:Krashens“monitor model”/“hypothesis/theory”nSummarynKrashens“monitor model”(i.e.,acquisition vs.learning,monitor,natural order,comprehensible input,and affective filter)has been very influential in supporting communicative language teaching(CLT),which focuses on using language for meaningful interaction and for accomplishing tasks,rather than on learning rules.nMost teachers and researchers see Krashens hypotheses intuitively appealing,but those hypotheses are hard to be tested by empirical evidence.2023/1/833aInformation processingnCognitive psychologists working in this model see L2 acquisition as the building up of knowledge systems that enables the learner to use the language automatically.nThey do not assume that there is a difference between acquisition and learning.nTwo important models:attention-processing(noticing)model and restructuring Model2023/1/834aInformation processingnAttention-processing(noticing)model:nIt is assumed that there is a limit to the amount of information a human can pay attention to and learn at one time.Gradually,through experience and practice,learners become able to use certain parts of the language automatically.nAutomatic language performance may originate from intentional or conscious learning;i.e.,noticing(McLaughlin&Schmidt).nEverything we come to know about the language was first“noticed”consciously before we learn it.2023/1/835aInformation processingnRestructuring Model:nSometimes things which we know and use automatically may not be explainable in terms of a gradual build-up of automaticity through practice.nThey seem rather to be based on the interaction of knowledge we already have,or on the acquisition of new knowledge(without extensive practice)which fits into an existing system and causes it to be restructured.This can lead to a positive or negative outcome.e.g.“I saw”“I seed”or“I sawed”overapplying the general rule.2023/1/836aConnectionismnConnectionists argue that what is innate is simply the ability to learn,not any specifically linguistic structure.nThey attribute greater importance to the role of the environment in language learning,and see the input as the principal source of linguistic knowledge.nEventually,a learner develops stronger mental connections between the elements s/he has learned,and thus one situational or linguistic element will activate the other(s)in the learners mind.2023/1/837aConnectionismnFindings of connectionist Research:nA learning mechanism can not only learn what it hears but can also generalize,even to the point of making overgeneralization（过分概括）errors.nThese studies have dealt almost exclusively with the acquisition of vocabulary and grammatical morphemes（词素）,that is,aspects of the language which innatists will grant may be acquired largely through memorization and simple generalization.2023/1/838aThe Interactionist PositionnSLA takes place through conversational interaction(Hatch,Pica,and Long).nLong sees modified interaction as the necessary mechanism for the L2 acquisition.What learners need is not necessarily simplification of the linguistic forms but rather an opportunity to interact with other speakers.nResearch shows that native speakers consistently modify their speech in sustained conversation with non-native speakers.2023/1/839aThe Interactionist PositionnThe relationship between modified interaction and SLA(Long):1.Interactional modification makes input comprehensible;2.Comprehensible input promotes acquisition;Therefore,3.Interactional modification promotes acquisition.2023/1/840aThe Interactionist PositionnModified interaction involves linguistic simplifications and conversational modifications.nExamples of conversational modifications:elaboration,slower speech rate,gesture,additional contextual cues,comprehension checks,clarification requests,and self-repetition or paraphrase.nResearch has demonstrated that conversational adjustments can aid comprehension in the L2.2023/1/841aThe Interactionist PositionnVygotskys sociocultural theorynLanguage development takes place in the social interactions between individuals.nL2 learners advance to higher levels of linguistic knowledge when they collaborate and interact with speakers of the L2 who are more knowledgeable than they are(Lantolf).nA learner is capable to learn in the zone of proximal development(ZPD)when there is support from interaction with a more advanced interlocutor.2023/1/842aThe Interactionist PositionnThe difference between Vygotskys socialcultural t
