新编简明英语语言学教程 第二 戴炜栋 Syntax.pptx
What is syntax?-a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.第1页/共32页Transformational Generative Grammar(TG)Norm.Chomsky,the most influential linguist in 20th century,some important works:(1957)Syntactic Structure;(1965)Aspects of the Theory of Syntax;(1981)Lectures on Government and Binding;(1986)Barriers(1993)A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory;(1995)The Minimalist Program;(1998)The Minimalist Inquiry第2页/共32页 Criteria on good grammar Observational adequacy Descriptive adequacy Explanatory adequacyThe ultimate goal for any theory is to explain.TG differs from traditional grammar in that it not only aims at language description,but also its explanation.第3页/共32页Chomsky is much more interested in the similarities(language universals)between languages rather than their differences.Linguists should attempt to find a grammatical framework which will be suitable for all languages;Linguists should concentrate on the elements and constructions that are available to all languages rather than on elements that actually occur in all languages.There are likely to be universal constraints on the ways linguistic elements are combined Chomsky proposed that the grammars of all human languages share a common framework(Universal Grammar).第4页/共32页CategoriesCategory（范畴）refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence,a noun phrase or a verb.The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories(traditionally,parts of speech)第5页/共32页Word-level categories Major lexical categories:p.43 N,V,Adj,Prep.Minor Lexical categories:p.43 Det（限定词）,Deg,Qual（修饰语）,Auxi,Conj.第6页/共32页The criteria on which categories are determined Meaning:n.entities,v.action,adj.propertiesEx.be aware of know about Inflection:n s,v.ed -ing,adj.er -estEx.a word belonging to more than one categoryDistribution:a/an n.,be v-ed,be v-ing,Note:The most reliable criterion of determining a words category is its distribution.第7页/共32页Phrase categories and their structures Phrase categories-the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories,such as NP,VP,AP,PP.NP VP AP PP phrase level l l l l N V A P word levelThe structure:specifier+head+complement head（中心成分）-the word around which a phrase is formedspecifier（标志成分）-the words on the left side of the headscomplement（补足成分）-the words on the right side of the heads第8页/共32页Phrase structure rules(PS-rule 段语结构规则）The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule,such as:NP (Det)+N+(PP)e.g.those people,the fish on the plate,pretty girls.VP (Qual)+V+(NP)e.g.always play games,finish assignments.AP (Deg)+A+(PP)very handsome,very pessimistic,familiar with,very close toPP (Deg)+P+(NP)on the shelf,in the boat,quite near the station.第9页/共32页Specifier X Complement HeadXPThe XP rule The XP rule:XP(specifier)X(complement)Note:The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram,in which X stands for N,V,A or P.第10页/共32页Coordination rule Coordinate structures-the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and,or,etc.-Coordination has four important properties:no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction;a category at any level can be coordinated;the categories must be of the same type;the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.第11页/共32页Phrase elements specifier（标志成分）head （中心成分）complement （补足成分）第12页/共32页specifiers-Semantically,specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head-Syntactically,they typically mark a phrase boundary.Specifiers can be determiners as in NP,qualifiers as in VP and degree words as in AP.第13页/共32页Complements-Complements themselves can be a phrase,they provide information abut entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head,e.g.a story about a sentimental girl.There can be no complement,one complement,or more than one complement in a phrase,e.g.p.48(4-4)(4-6)A sentence-like construction may also function as a complement such as in“I believed that she was innocent.I doubt if she will come.They are keen for you to show up.”“That/if/for”in the above sentences are complementizers（补语化成分）,the clauses introduced by complementizers are complement clause.第14页/共32页Modifiers-Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of heads.Expanded XP rule XP(specifier)(modifier)X(complement*)(modifier)第15页/共32页Sentences(the S rule)S NP VP SNPVPNPDet N V Det NA boy found the evidence第16页/共32页 lS NP infl VP lMany linguists believe that sentences,like other phrases,also have their own heads.Infl is an abstract category inflection(dubbed Infl)as their heads,which indicates the sentences tense and agreement.InflP(=S)NPVPInflSentences(the S rule)第17页/共32页Infl realized by a tense labelInflP（=S）NPVPNPDet N V Det NA boy found the evidence.InflPst第18页/共32页Infl realized by an auxiliaryInflP（=S）VPNPNPDet N V Det NA boy will find the evidenceInfl第19页/共32页Transformations Auxiliary movement(inversion)Do insertion Deep structure&surface structure Wh-movement Move and constraints on transformations 第20页/共32页Auxiliary movement(inversion)Inversion Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.Inversion(revised)Move Infl to Cs.CsCPSDet N Vthe train will arriveNPVPInfl第21页/共32页Auxiliary movement(inversion)CPSCsNP Det N VWill the train e(“empty”-trace)arriveInflInflVP第22页/共32页Do insertionDo insertion-Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.CPCsSNP Infl VPBirds flyCPCPCsCsSSInfl NP Infl VPNP Infl VPBirds do flyDo birds e flyN VN Nonpst VNonpst N V第23页/共32页Deep structure-formed by the XP rule in accordance with the heads subcategorization(p.48)properties;it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence.Surface structure-corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations;it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written.Deep structure&surface structure 第24页/共32页The organization of the syntactic componentThe XP ruleDeep structuretransformationsSurface structureSubcategorization(p.48)restricts choice of complements第25页/共32页Wh-movementConsider the derivation of the following sentences:What languages can you speak?What will you talk about?These sentences may originate as:You can speak what languages.You will talk about what.第26页/共32页Wh-movementWh-movement-Move a wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence.What language can you speak?What will you talk about?inversioninversionWh-movementWh-movement第27页/共32页Wh-movementWh-movement-Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP.(Revised)CPVP NPV Det Nwon the gameSNP Infl Pste WhoCs第28页/共32页CPVP She has finally found the man she loves whomSNP Infl NP CNPCPSVPNPN Pst Qua V Det N N NonPst V NThe deep structure of the sentence fig.4-17(p.58)CsModInfl第29页/共32页CPVP She has finally found the man whom she loves eS Cs NP Infl NP CsNPCPSVPNPN Pst Qua V Det N N N NonPst V NThe surface structure of the sentence fig.4-18(p.58)ModInfl第30页/共32页Move and constraints on transformationsInversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest Cs position,but not to a more distant Cs position.p.59 fig.4-21-4-23No element may be removed from a coordinate structure.p.59 fig.4-24-4-25第31页/共32页感谢您的观看！第32页/共32页
