瑞典的生态建筑和城市规划_派尔_米盖尔_塞勒斯德洛姆.pdf
FEATURE THEME|主题专栏16一、生态建筑生态建筑和城市规划并不仅仅指建筑和城市的品质，更重要的是与建筑及城市结构对整个生态环境的影响。对于建筑和环境之间关系的误解常常产生重要影响。生态学者通常容易低估建筑环境具有通过精妙的技术来支持自身生态系统的能力。建筑师和规划师一方面更习惯于以主观的定性分析代替科学分析，另一方面他们容易误解环境要求的性质和影响。在一定程度上，生态建筑要求的品质不仅包括人的感官（如建筑师训练有素的眼睛）所能感觉到的部分，更多的是通过建筑特定物理性能（如温度和湿度）的测量来验证的抽象部分。为了有组织地将我们的城市发展为一个美丽的生态城市，我们必须考虑建筑和城市发展之间的空间关系、生态系统整合这些变化的承载力，而且以设计的人造物本身便能够提供生态服务的方式。这意味着建筑师除了掌握通过专业教育获得的建筑和技术细节的知识，还必须通晓建筑物理学，甚至生物物理学。但是，这并不表示建筑师就应该忘记美学。相反，新的对生态负责的建筑师一定在瑞典的生态建筑和城市规划ECOLOGICAL ARCHITECTURE AND URBANISM IN SWEDEN派尔 米盖尔 塞勒斯德洛姆 Pehr Mikael Sllstrm翻译：赵丹 Translated by Zhao Dan 校审：邱志勇 Proofed by Qiu Zhiyong摘要 由于气候以及环境的变化，全世界对生态建筑和城市化越来越重视。瑞典20世纪60年代已经研究可持续生态发展模式及相关政策；70年代建立环境保护体系，逐渐发展可用的生态建设模式。目前，国际上已经普遍承认这个模式的关键在于，同时考虑社会需求、生态容量和经济落实手段，才能实现完美的生态建设。本文从技术性的角度介绍瑞典近年新的建筑设计理念以及标准和法制，以期为中国的环境保护规划与土地规划结合体系的操作提供参考。关键词 生态 手段 法制 环保技术 被动房 节能Abstract Due to the climate and the environmental change,the whole world pays more attention to the ecological architecture and urbanization.Since the 1960s,Sweden has researched the sustainable ecological development model and the related policies.In the 1970s,it established the environmental protection system and gradually developed the available ecological construction model.So far,this model has already been recognized internationally because it considers the social needs,the ecological capacity and the economic implementment measuresso as to achieve the perfect ecological construction.From the technical perspective,the article introduces the recent new conceptions of the Sweden architecture design,as well as the standards and the laws,providing the reference for the operation of environmental protection planning and land planning system in China.Keywords Ecology,Measures,Laws,Environmental technology,Passive house,Energy saving.Ecological ArchitectureEcological architecture and urbanism is not only about the quality of buildings and cities as such.Even more important is the structural the relationship between the architecture of cities and the whole ecological environment.However misunderstandings of the relationship between the built environment and the ecological system are paramount.Ecologists generally tend to under-estimate the capac-ity of the built-environment to uphold its own eco-system through ingenious technolo-gies.Architects and planners,being more accustomed to visual qualitative analysis than scientific,on the other hand tend to misunderstand the nature and consequences of envi-ronmental requirements.It is partly a matter of that the qualities required by an ecological architecture are not only qualities that can be perceived by the human senses,such as the architects trained eye,but more abstract qualities that can only be verified through meas-urement of specific physical properties of the building such as insulation and humidity.To organize the development of our cities into a beautiful ecological civilisation we must consider the spatial relationship between architecture and urban development as well as the capacity of the ecological system to integrate such changes and in what way the designed artefacts can supply ecological services in themselves.This means that architects have to familiarize themselves with building physics,and even bio-physics,along with the established education on construction and technical details.But this doesnt mean that architects should forget about aesthetics.On the contrary,the new ecologically responsible architect must design with respect for peoples needs,not 17城市建筑 2013.08|URBANISM AND ARCHITECTURE Aug.2013only of basic functions and health,but also of environments that reflect their ide-als,are dignified,can inspire their daily life and support their social life.There is an inalienable relationship between the ethical and the aesthetic aspects of architecture.Many architects believe they can be fused into one.The point with ecology is that the ethical dimension must be expanded to the future generations right to our common earth and its resources.Conventional architectural ethics are only concerned with the living users.Another difference is that the criteria for the ethically good is no longer only depend-ent on the concrete facts about the building,the qualities that can be assessed with the bodily functions of a trained architect.To evaluate the ethical performance we rely on abstract measurable properties of the build environment,that are difficult to verify with the plain human senses.This is a new structural condition for architectural ethics and professionalism.1.Energy1.EnergyThe most popular building technological invention in Sweden in the latest years is the so called passive house.Passive houses need no other energy for heating than that which is emitted from the sun,electrical equipment and the people living in the house.This means that the cost for insulation increases and the demands on the quality of the production rises.There must be no leakage of air.But with this building technique the cost for heating installations on the whole goes down.The only installation need-ed is a heat-exchange pump on the ventilation.This is a major advantage as cost for heating and ventilation installations in some cases amount to nearly 30%of building costs.The model housing where this technique was introduced is the Linds residential area near Gothenburg in western Sweden.Such a family house reduces the total need for energy to maximum 45 kWh/(sqm,year)including electricity for lighting,equipment and the heat produced by the inhabitants,according to the recently adopted volun-tary national standard.This is a major reduction of energy needs from the present requirements of 120 kWh/(sqm,year),and even more compared to the standard of houses built before the oil crisis of the 1970s,which generally consumes above 240 kWh/(sqm,year).Sweden is a country in the cold northern hemisphere,which may explain why the en-ergy aspects of sustainability are emphasized.But the truth is that the cooling of of-fices and workplaces in the warmer parts of the world uses as much energy as heating today.Even in Sweden the cost for cooling is going up.The energy issues in ecologi-cal building are paramount all over the world.Sweden and China has collaborated on energy issues since many years.For instance the former professor of building construction Bo Adamson at Lund university made research in China in the early 1990s.In his report he suggested a standard for pas-sive heating in the Nanjing area based on the assumptions that variations of indoor climate between 18 and 28 degrees would be tolerable.According to his research this can be achieved by increasing the insulating capacity of the roof keeping heat out-side during the summer and inside during the winter.The issue of energy is also about whether the kind of energy which is used is harmful to the climate and produces CO2-gas.Sweden is world leader in the development of heat-pumps to use the solar energy stored in the ground.Combined with hydro-or wind-power electricity,this technique can entirely remove the need for oil,coal and bio-gas or any other CO2 producing fuels,for heating houses.This technology is very useful in houses with an older technical standard that are too expensive to insulate and convert to passive standard.To find the right balance between investment in insulation and technical equipment 设计时尊重人的需求，不仅是功能和健康方面的需求，还包括环境方面的需求，后者反映了他们的理想是高尚的，能够激发他们的日常生活，支持他们的社会生活。建筑的伦理学方面和美学方面之间存在着不可分割的关系，很多建筑师认为它们可以被融为一体。以生态学的观点，伦理维度应被扩展到子孙后代对我们共有的地球及其资源享用的权利，而传统的建筑伦理只关注现在的使用者。另一个区别在于，伦理上关于好标准不再只依赖建筑的具体情况以及由训练有素的建筑师通过整体功能评估的品质。要想评价其伦理表现，就得有赖于建筑环境抽象的、可度量的性能，这是凭借人的感官难以验证的。这对建筑的伦理学和职业化而言是新的结构性的条件。1 能源1 能源最近几年，一种被称作“被动房”（passive house）的建筑技术创新在瑞典非常盛行。被动房的供暖从太阳辐射、电气设备和居住其中的人身上获取能量，不需要其他能源。这意味着保温隔热成本的增加、对生产质量要求的提升，因为房屋不能漏风，但是这一建筑技术使得供暖装置成本整体下降，只需在通风系统中安装热交换泵即可。在某些情况下，供暖和通风装置的成本几乎占建筑成本的30%，因而这是一个重大的优势。瑞典西部哥德堡（Gothenburg）附近的Linds住宅区（图1）就是采用这种技术的示范住区。根据最近通过的推荐性国家标准，这种家庭住宅的总能源需求最多减少到每年45 kwhm2，包括照明和设备用电以及居民产生的热量。与目前每年120 kwhm2的标准相比，这是一个重大的减少，与20世纪70年代石油危机之前建成的房屋标准（能耗通常高于每年240 kwhm2）相比，减少的更多。瑞典位于寒冷的北半球，这也是该国特别强调能源方面可持续发展的原因。但事实上，温暖地区的办公室和工作场所制冷所消耗的能源也并不少。而且即使在瑞典，用于制冷的成本也在攀升。生态建筑中的能源问题成为全世界最重要的问题。瑞典和中国在能源问题上已经合作了多年。例如，隆德大学（Lund University）曾任土木建筑学院教授博丹森（Bo Adamson）早在20世纪90年代初就在中国进行研究。他在报告中为南京地区提出了一个被动供暖的标准，基于室内气温在1828之间变化是可容忍的假设之上。根据他的研究，通过提高屋顶的隔热保温能力在夏季将热量隔在室外，在冬季将热量保持在室内即可实现。能源问题还包括我们使用的能源种类是否对气候产生有害影响，是否产生CO2。瑞典是世界上率先开发地源热泵的国家。结合水力或风力发电，该技术可以完全实现无需石油、煤炭、沼气或其他任何产生CO2的燃料为住宅供暖。对于依照原有技术标准建造、保温隔热以及转换至被动标准的成本过高的住宅而言，这个技术非常实用。寻求隔热和技术设备的投资的恰当平衡有赖于建FEATURE THEME|主题专栏18筑设计和规划。瑞典建筑师克里斯特马姆斯特罗姆（Christer Malmstrm）在过去的二十年里一直致力于完善他在创造智慧型节能建筑方面的技巧，这其中包含了建筑的设计、空间和建造。结果，瑞典出现了一大批超出主流产品的公共和私人建筑。它们中的很多是建筑竞赛的成果，其中一个项目于2004年获得了瑞典建筑师最高荣誉卡斯帕萨林奖（Kasper Salin Prize）。该奖项自1962年以来授予具有较高建筑标准的建筑或建筑群，目的是促进瑞典建筑的发展。克里斯特马姆斯特罗姆的例子表明，生态建筑要求建筑师和建筑物理学家之间进行密切的合作。这在瑞典很难实现，一是因为工程学和建筑学业已形成的专业分化，同时也因为在瑞典，建设过程的组织形式是由承包商在建筑师的设计方案确定之后才雇用工程师。为此，哥德堡的查尔姆斯理工大学（Chalmers University of Technology）开设了建筑工程师（archi-tect-engineers）这一新专业，试图解决这种沟通的不足。教学课程于2007年开始，第一批学生已在2012年夏天毕业。2 负责任地使用材料2 负责任地使用材料说到生态建筑，也包括构造和材料的再利用，以及使用能够最大限度减少对生态系统产生危害的材料。最早减少建筑再利用成本的策略是20世纪60年代的结构主义方法。当时掌管着瑞典约50%建设活动的皇家建筑委员会意识到，改造现有建筑的成本非常高。于是，将结构与功能分离以便使较短生命周期的技术设备易于更换的概念被引入。皇家建筑委员会的建筑师试图与A4建筑事务所一起制定灵活、开放的建筑系统，当时的目标在于降低因办公楼升级到最新技术标准和不断变化的功能要求所需的成本。今天，我们也可以将其理解为实现更可持续建筑的一种方式。可持续建筑最近的范例之一是位于斯德哥尔摩郊外索尔纳（Solna）的瑞典邮政总部，该项目在2004年的卡斯帕萨林奖（Kasper Salin Award）中被提名1。这座建筑可以被重新组装，其通用的空间有利于满足不断变化的功能需求。为了尽量减少对其所处的绿化区域的影响，建筑有很大一部分没入地下。瑞典的建筑实践已经发展到对于可持续的概念很少会有争议的程度。如今，瑞典大部分的重要承包商都在计划提高他们在市场上的环保形象。一些设计工具有的由法律支持，有的由市场支持被开发出来，以促进生态可持续性的实现。住房、建设和规划委员会（Boverket）最近推出了建筑的环境分类标准。在民间，有一个被称作“天鹅”（Swan）的类似环境影响指标，经常被用来作为建筑的环保标准。这与市场上竞争者们的卓越成就是相关的，虽然他们这么做并不会给自己的工作带来任何好处。此外还有一些按照 环境保护准则（Code of Environmental Pro-tection）规定的建筑材料的分类工具，有利于建筑师负责地选择材料。到目前为止，瑞典采用的最直接的方法是伍珀塔requires architectural design and planning.Swedish architect Christer Malmstrm has been practicing for the last two decades refining his skills to create energy smart build-ings that also involves(involve?)architectural design,space and constructions.This has resulted in a number of public and private buildings around the country that stands above the main stream production in Sweden.Many of them the outcome of archi-tectural competitions and one of them rewarded with the highest distinction among Swedish architects,the Kasper Salin Prize in 2004.This Prize has been given to buildings or groups of buildings of high architectural standard since 1962 to promote architecture in Sweden.The example of ChristerMalmstrm show us that ecological architecture require a close collaboration between architects and building physicists.It is difficult to achieve in Sweden because of the specialized cultures that the engineering and architecture professions have turned into.But also because of the way the Swedish building process is organized,where contractors hire engineers after the architect s plans have already been projected.An attempt to resolve this lack of communication has been made with the creation of a new kind of architect-engineers at Chalmers university of technology in Gothenburg.The new education program began only in 2007 and the first students with this new combination of skills already graduated in the summer 2012.2.Responsible use of materials2.Responsible use of materialsTo speak of ecological building we also need to include aspects of re-use of construc-tions and materials and also using materials that minimizes the harm on the eco-system.The earliest strategy to reduce the cost of re-use of buildings was the structuralist ap-proach of the 1960s.The Royal Building Board in charge of about 50%of building ac-tivities in Sweden at the time realized that the cost for transformations and changes of existing buildings was very high.The concept of separating the structure from the func-tion and to facilitate exchange of the technical installations with the shorter life-span was introduced.The architects at the Royal Building Board tried to develop a flexible and open building system together with the architects called A4.At the time the aim was to reduce the cost for upgrading office buildings to the latest technical standards and constant changes of the functional requirements.Today we can also understand this as a way to achieve a more sustainable building.One of the most recent exponents of this aspect of sustainable building is the head-quarters for the Swedish Post in Solna outside Stockholm,nominated for the Kasper Sa-lin Award in 2004.The building can be reassembled,and it has a generalized space that facilitates frequent changes of functional requirements1.To minimize the impact on the green area where it is located a large portion of the building has also been dug into the ground.Architectural practice in Sweden has come to a point where the concept of sustainabili-ty is questioned by few.Most of the major contractors in Sweden today have programs to promote their environmental image on the market.Several design tools,in some cases supported by the law,in some cases by the market,have been developed to facilitate the implementation of ecological sustainability.A standard for environmental classification of buildings has recently been launched by the Board of Housing,Building and Planning(Boverket).In the private sector a parallel environmental impact indicator called the Swan is often used to benchmark the buildings environmental standard.This standard is relative to the best achievement of the competitors on the market.What everybody does doesn t give any points.There are also tools for classification of building materials,as stipulated by the Code of Environmental protection,that facilitate responsible choices of materials by the architects.The most straight forward method that have been tried so far in Sweden is the Factor 10 Wuppertal Method.This method has been tried in a project for a House of Design in 19城市建筑 2013.08|URBANISM AND ARCHITECTURE Aug.2013the small mining town of Hllefors situated in the forested mountain areas of mid Swe-den.The method is based on the assumption that if the living standard in developed countries like Sweden will be adopted by all peoples of the world,we must reduce the impact of our life style and to a great extent of our buildings on the environment by a factor 10.Or as this is often put:If all people on earth would have the same living standard as the peoples in the developed countries we would need the resources of 10 Globes.The Museum of Design at Hllefors only achieved factor 1.8.If this is taken as a bench-mark of the Swedish standard performance in terms of ecological footprint it would mean that we still have to be 5-6 times better than we are now to achieve a globally responsible lifestyle.The main point with all these tools and standard measurements is that it helps to facili-tate practical action through increasing the awareness of sustainable consequences of different choices.Ecological UrbanismSustainability is not only about building technology and design methods.The building patterns and the strategies adopted for urban development are
