组织行为学精要第7版chap054093.pdf

Part II The Individual in the Organization 46 CHAPTER 5-MOTIVATION:FROM CONCEPTS TO APPLICATIONS CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter,students should be able to:1.Identify the four ingredients common to management by objectives(MBO)programs.2.Outline the five-step problem-solving model in OB Mod.3.Explain why managers might want to use employee involvement programs.4.Contrast participative management with employee involvement.5.Explain how employee stock ownership plans(ESOPs)can increase employee motivation.6.Describe the link between skill-based pay plans and motivation theories.LECTURE OUTLINE I.MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES A.Goal-setting Theory 1.An impressive base of research support.2.How do you make goal setting operational?a)Install an MBO program.B.What Is MBO?1.Management by objectives(MBO)emphasizes participatively set goals that are tangible,verifiable,and measurable.a)MBO was originally proposed by Peter Drucker forty-five years ago as a means of using goals to motivate people rather than to control them.2.MBO appeal is the emphasis on converting overall organizational objectives into specific objectives for organizational units and individual members.a)See Exhibit 5-1 for the process by which objectives cascade down through the organization.3.MBO works from the bottom up as well as from the top down.a)The hierarchy of objectives link objectives at one level to those at the next level.b)If all the individuals achieve their goals,then their units goals will be attained and the organizations overall objectives will become a reality.4.Four ingredients are common to MBO programs:goal specificity,participative decision making,an explicit time period,and performance feedback.a)The objectives in MBO should be concise statements of expected accomplishments.b)MBO replaces imposed goals with participatively determined goals.c)Each objective has a specific time period in which it is to be completed.Typically,the time period is three months,six months,or a year.d)MBO seeks to give continuous feedback on progress toward goals so that individuals can monitor and correct their own actions.(1)Continuous feedback,supplemented by more formal periodic managerial evaluations,takes place at the top of the organization as well as at the bottom.C.Linking MBO and Goal-Setting Theory 1.Goal-setting theory demonstrates:a)Hard goals result in a higher level of individual performance.b)Feedback on ones performance leads to higher performance.2.MBO directly advocates:a)Specific goals and feedback.b)MBO implies,rather than explicitly states,that goals must be perceived as feasible.Chapter 5 Motivation:From Concepts to Application 47 c)Consistent with goal setting theory,MBO would be most effective when the goals are difficult enough to require the person to do some stretching.3.The only area of possible disagreement between MBO and goal-setting theory is related to the issue of participation.a)MBO strongly advocates it.b)Goal-setting theory demonstrates that assigning goals to subordinates frequently works just as well.c)The major benefit to using participation,however,is that is appears to induce individuals to establish more difficult goals.D.MBO in Practice 1.Reviews of studies suggest that it is a popular technique.a)MBO programs are in business,health care,educational,government,and nonprofit organizations.2.MBOs popularity should not be construed to mean that it always works.a)There are a number of documented cases in which MBO was implemented but failed to meet managements expectations.b)The problems rarely lie with MBOs basic components.c)The causes tend to be unrealistic expectations,lack of top-management commitment,and an inability or unwillingness by management to allocate rewards based on goal accomplishment.II.BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION A.Emery Air Freight Study 1.Occurred almost thirty years ago with freight packers at Emery Air Freight(now part of FedEx)a)Management wanted packers to aggregate shipments into freight containers rather than handle many separate items.b)Packers claimed 90 percent of shipments were put in containers.c)Analysis showed container use rate was only 45 percent.d)In order to encourage employees to use containers,management established a program of feedback and positive reinforcement.e)Container use jumped to more than 90 percent on the first day of the program and held to that level.f)This simple program saved the company millions of dollars.2.The Emery Air Freight study illustrates the use of organizational behavior modification(OB Mod).B.What Is OB Mod?1.See Exhibit 5-2.2.A five-step problem-solving model:a)Identify performance-related behaviors.b)Measure the behaviors.c)Identify behavioral contingencies.d)Develop and implement an intervention strategy.e)Evaluate performance improvement.3.Identify the behaviors that have a significant impact on the employees job performance.a)These are those 5 to 10 percent of behaviors that may account for up to 70 or 80 percent of each employees performance.4.The manager then develops some baseline performance information.a)The number of times the identified behavior is occurring under present conditions.Part II The Individual in the Organization 48 5.The third step is to perform a functional analysis to identify the behavioral contingencies or consequences of performance.a)This tells the manager which cues emit the behavior and which consequences are currently maintaining it.6.Now the manager is ready to develop and implement an intervention strategy to strengthen desirable performance behaviors and weaken undesirable behaviors.a)The appropriate strategy will entail changing some element of the performance-reward linkagestructure,processes,technology,groups,or the taskwith the goal of making high-level performance more rewarding.7.The final step in OB Mod is to evaluate performance improvement.C.Linking OB Mod and Reinforcement Theory 1.Reinforcement theory relies on positive reinforcement,shaping,and recognizing the impact of different schedules of reinforcement on behavior.2.OB Mod uses these concepts to provide managers with a powerful/proven means for changing employee behavior.D.OB Mod in Practice 1.OB Mod has been used to improve employee productivity and to reduce errors,ab-senteeism,tardiness,and accident rates.a)General Electric b)Weyerhauser c)The city of Detroit d)Xerox 2.A general review of OB programs found an average 17 percent improvement in performance.III.EMPLOYEE RECOGNITION PROGRAMS A.The Laura Schendell Example 1.Organizations are increasingly recognizing what Laura Schendell is acknowledging:recognition can be a potent motivator.B.What Are Employee Recognition Programs?1.Numerous forms 2.The best use multiple sources and recognize both individual and group accomplishments.C.Linking Recognition Programs and Reinforcement Theory 1.A survey of 1,500 employees regarding the most powerful workplace motivator.a)Their response was recognition,recognition,and more recognition.2.Consistent with reinforcement theory,rewarding a behavior with recognition immediately following that behavior is likely to encourage its repetition.3.And that recognition can take many forms.a)Personally congratulate an employee in private for a good job.b)Send a handwritten note or an e-mail message.c)Publicly recognize accomplishments.d)And to enhance group cohesiveness and motivation,you can celebrate team suc-cesses.D.Employee Recognition Programs in Practice 1.Todays cost pressures make recognition programs particularly attractive.a)Recognizing an employees superior performance often costs little or no money.Chapter 5 Motivation:From Concepts to Application 49 b)A survey of 3,000 employers found that two-thirds use or plan to use special recognition awards.2.One of the most well-known and widely-used recognition devices is a suggestion system.a)Employees offer suggestions for improving processes or cutting costs and are recognized with small cash awards.3.The Japanese have been especially effective at making suggestion systems work.a)A typical high-performing Japanese plant in the auto components business generates 47 suggestions per employee a year and pays approximately the equivalent of U.S.$35.00 per suggestion.b)In contrast,a comparable Western factory generates about one suggestion per em-ployee per year but pays out$90.00 per suggestion.IV.EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT PROGRAMS A.Example 1.Teams perform many tasks and assume many of the responsibilities once handled by their supervisors.B.What Is Employee Involvement?1.Employee involvement has become a convenient catchall term to cover a variety of techniques.a)Employee participation or participative management b)Workplace democracy c)Empowerment d)Employee ownership 2.Employee involvement is a participative process that uses the entire capacity of employees and is designed to encourage increased commitment to the organizations success.a)The underlying logic involves workers in decisions that will affect them and increases their autonomy and control,which will result in higher motivation,greater commitment,more productivity,and more satisfaction.3.Participation and employee involvement are not synonyms.a)Participation is a more limited term.b)It is a subset within the larger framework of employee involvement.C.Examples of Employee Involvement Programs 1.Three forms of employee involvement:participative management,representative participation,and employee stock ownership plans.2.Participative Management a)Characteristic of all participative management programs is joint decision making.b)Has been promoted as a panacea for poor morale and low productivity.c)Not always appropriate.For it to work:(1)There must be adequate time to participate.(2)The issues must be relevant to the employees.(3)Employees must have the ability to participate.(4)The organizations culture must support employee involvement.d)Dozens of studies have been conducted on the participation-performance relationship.(1)Mixed findings.3.Representative Participation a)Rather than participating directly in decisions,workers are represented by a small group of employees who actually participate.(1)The most widely legislated form of employee involvement around the world.Part II The Individual in the Organization 50 4.The goal of representative participation is to redistribute power within an organization.5.The two most common forms that representative participation takes are works councils and board representatives.a)Works councils link employees with management.They are groups of nominated or elected employees who must be consulted when management makes decisions involving personnel.b)Board representatives are employees who sit on a companys board of directors and represent the interests of the firms employees.In some countries,large companies may be legally required to make sure that employee representatives have the same number of board seats as stockholder representatives.6.The overall influence of representative participation on working employees seems to be minimal.a)Works councils are dominated by management and have little impact on employees or the organization.b)The greatest value of representative participation is symbolic.7.Employee Stock Ownership Plans(ESOPs)a)Company-established benefit plans in which employees acquire stock as part of their benefits.(1)United Airlines,Publix Supermarkets,Graybar Electric,and Anderson Corporation are four examples of companies that are more than 50 percent owned by employees.b)In the typical ESOP an employee stock ownership trust is created.c)Companies contribute either stock or cash to buy stock for the trust and allocate the stock to employees.d)Employees usually cannot take physical possession of their shares or sell them as long as theyre still employed at the company.e)ESOPs increase employee satisfaction and frequently result in higher performance.D.Linking Employee Involvement Program and Motivation Theories 1.Employee involvement draws on several motivation theories.a)Theory Y is consistent with participative management.b)Theory X aligns with the more traditional autocratic style of managing people.c)Two-factor theory relates to employee involvement programs that provide employees with intrinsic motivation by increasing opportunities for growth,responsibility,and involvement in the work itself.E.Employee Involvement Programs in Practice 1.Germany,France,the Netherlands,and the Scandinavian countries have firmly es-tablished the principle of industrial democracy in Europe,and other nations,including Japan and Israel,have traditionally practiced some form of representative participation for decades.2.Participative management and representative participation were much slower to gain ground in North American organizations.a)Now,employee involvement programs stressing participation are the norm.3.ESOPs.a)They are becoming a popular employee involvement program-having grown to around 10,000,covering more than 10 million employees.V.VARIABLE-PAY PROGRAMS A.Examples Chapter 5 Motivation:From Concepts to Application 51 1.Nucor Steel has had an incentive compensation plan in place that pays bonuses of as much as 150 percent of base to employees.2.Rick Benson,an investment banker with Merrill Lynch,earned$1.4 million in 1998more than six times his base salary.3.C.Michael Armstrong,Chairman and CEO of AT&T,saw his annual salary and bonus drop from$4.59 million to$3.26 million in 2000.B.What Are Variable-Pay Programs?1.Piece-rate plans,wage incentives,profit sharing,bonuses,and gain sharing are all forms of variable-pay programs.2.Differ from traditional programs in that a person is paid not only for time on the job or seniority but for some individual or organizational measure of performance or both.3.Variable pay is not an annuity.a)With variable pay,earnings fluctuate with the measure of performance.4.This fluctuation makes these programs attractive to management.a)Part of an organizations fixed labor costs become a variable cost.b)In addition,when pay is tied to performance,earnings recognize contribution rather than being a form of entitlement.5.Four of the more widely used of the variable-pay programs follow.a)Piece-rate wages have been around for nearly a century.(1)Popular as a means for compensating production workers.(2)Workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed.(3)A system in which an employee gets no base salary and is paid only for what he or she produces is a pure piece-rate plan.(4)Many organizations use a modified piece-rate plan,in which employees earn a base hourly wage plus a piece-rate differential.b)Bonuses can be paid exclusively to executives or to all employees.(1)Increasingly,bonus plans are taking on a larger net within organizations to include lower-ranking employees.c)Profit-sharing plans are organization-wide programs that distribute compensation based on some established formula designed around a companys profitability.(1)These can be direct cash outlays o