语言学第四章.ppt

语言学第四章现在学习的是第1页，共59页outline4.1 Introduction4.2 Word Classes 4.3 The Prescriptive Approach 4.4 The Descriptive Approach 4.4.1 Structural analysis 4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar 4.6 Transformational Grammar 4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar 现在学习的是第2页，共59页4.1 Introduction Syntax:study of the internal structures of sentence and the rules for the combination of words.Difference between morphology and syntaxMorphology:the internal structure of words Syntax:the combination of words 现在学习的是第3页，共59页Syntactic rules(1)a.The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds.b.The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter.(2)a.Jack looked up the word.b.Jack looked the word up.(3)*Cries fear the the of hunter blackbirds the.Conclusion:The structure of sentence such as word order can change the meaning.Every sentence is a sequence of words but not every sequence of words is a sentence.Sentence formation has rules,so that we have well/ill formed or(un)grammatical sentences.现在学习的是第4页，共59页4.2 Word Classes Nouns are words used to refer to people,objects,creatures,places,events,qualities,phenomena and abstract ideas as if they were all things.cats,dogs,war,wedding,courage,beauty,rain,love,hatredAdjectives are words that describe the thing,quality,state or action which a noun refers to.beautiful,redVerbs are words used to refer to various actions and states involving the“things”in events.run,walk,seem 现在学习的是第5页，共59页Adverbs are words that describe or add to the meaning of a verb,an adjective,another adverb,or a sentence,and which answers the questions introduced by how,where,when,etc.carefully,slowly,then,nowPrepositions are words used with nouns in phrases providing information about time,place and other connections involving actions and things.现在学习的是第6页，共59页Pronouns are words which may replace nouns or noun phrases.Conjunctions are words used to connect and indicate relationships between events and things.Articles,Exclamations,Numerals现在学习的是第7页，共59页The definitions above are useful for identifying most forms,but they are never completely accurate.A different approach might focus on some other properties of the word classes.For example,a noun can be defined as a form that comes after an article(a,an and the)and can take inflections for possessive(-s)and plural(-s).Of course,not all nouns(eg.information and mud)have all these characteristics.现在学习的是第8页，共59页Phrase structure rulesRepresentation(通过词性表征句法通过词性表征句法):The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds Art+N +V+Art+N+Prep+Art +NThe rules which govern the structure of phrases are known as phrase structure rules or rewrite rules.Such rules allow for the generation of grammatical sentences in a language.现在学习的是第9页，共59页4.3 The Prescriptive Approach Definition:An approach taken by some grammarians,mainly in eighteenth-century England,who lay down rules for the correct or“proper”use of English by following Latin.现在学习的是第10页，共59页(a)You must not split infinitives.(b)You must not end a sentence with a preposition.To boldly go.To go boldly.Preposition is not a word you can end a sentence with.(funny)现在学习的是第11页，共59页4.4 The Descriptive Approach Definition:An approach taken throughout the 20th century which attempts to describe the regular structures of the language as it is used by collecting samples.Various techniques may be employed.现在学习的是第12页，共59页4.4.1 Structural analysis A descriptive approach studying the distribution of linguistic forms in a language by means of test frames,which can be sentences with empty slots in them.（分布、测试框架、替代、纵聚合关系）（分布、测试框架、替代、纵聚合关系）(4)The _ makes a lot of noise.(nouns:car,radio,child,dog)(5)I heard a _ yesterday.(nouns:car,radio,child,dog)现在学习的是第13页，共59页(6)_ makes a lot of noise.(noun phrases:it,the car,a dog,Peter,a new car,the scholar with an American accent)(7)I hear _ yesterday.(noun phrases:it,the car,a dog,Peter,a new car,the scholar with an American accent)现在学习的是第14页，共59页4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis(Bloomfield:直接成分分析法直接成分分析法)Language is linear and hierarchical.We can analyze language from its largest level to the smallest level,that is from its construction to its constituents by means of substitutability and expansion.The first divisions or cuts of a construction are called immediate constituents and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents.现在学习的是第15页，共59页The first divisions or cuts of a construction are called immediate constituents and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents.The approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents is called immediate constituent analysis(IC).现在学习的是第16页，共59页Immediate constituent analysis(IC analysis)has two ways of representation:Tree diagram brackets现在学习的是第17页，共59页Tree diagram(8)The man bought a car.现在学习的是第18页，共59页BracketsBrackets can also be used but are arguably less easy to read.(9)a.the man bought a car b.the man bought a car c.the man bought a car d.the man bought a car现在学习的是第19页，共59页Merit:Solving Disambiguityold men and women 现在学习的是第20页，共59页4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar(成分结构语法成分结构语法)A grammar which analyzes sentences using only the idea of constituency,which reveals a hierarchy of structural levels.The main principle is labeling and bracketing based on the idea that linguistic units can be parts of larger constructions or can themselves be made up of smaller parts.(binary and verb-centered)现在学习的是第21页，共59页 Tree diagram BinaryVerb-centered现在学习的是第22页，共59页Generative Rules(早期转换语法的概念早期转换语法的概念短语结构语法短语结构语法)The syntax of a language is then seen as a set of rules which generate sentences in that language.SNPVPVPVtr.NPNPArtNVtr.buy,sell,build,repair,wash,etc.Nman,woman,car,house,bicycle,etc.Arta,an,the 现在学习的是第23页，共59页(12)a.The man bought a car.b.The man sold a car.c.The woman repaired the bicycle.Sentences generated：现在学习的是第24页，共59页More complex rules There is a large number of sentences in English that such rules cannot produce.This set of rules has very limited generative power.The above rules only deal with simple noun phrases and transitive verbs.They do not allow us to deal with any part of the verb structure such as tense,modals or aspect.现在学习的是第25页，共59页现在学习的是第26页，共59页Sentences generated：(13)a.The man sells the car in the garage.b.The woman washes the bicycle in the street.c.The boy repairs the bicycle in the house.现在学习的是第27页，共59页Merit:Solving Disambiguity(14)The boy repairs the bicycle in the house.in the house around the corner(Recursion,Recursiveness递归性递归性)Mary helped George.Cathy thought Mary helped George.John said Cathy thought Mary helped George.现在学习的是第28页，共59页A childrens rhyme:This is the house that Jack built.This is the cat that lived in the house that Jack built.This is the dog that chased the cat that lived in the house that Jack built.This is the man that keeps the dog that chased the cat that lived in the house that Jack built.This is the woman that married the man that keeps the dog that chased the cat that lived in the house that Jack built.现在学习的是第29页，共59页Some problems of CSG:A.Lexical selection restriction With simple constituent structure rules,any noun can be introduced in a combination with any verb.This does not happen in natural language.We cannot say:(15)*The belief washed an apple.现在学习的是第30页，共59页B.Discontinuousness (16)The boy cleaned the room up.(17)The student looked the word up in the dictionary.C.Relation between sentences that seem to be closely related structurally and semantically (18)a.Brian hit George b.George was hit by Brian.现在学习的是第31页，共59页Noam Chomsky,(1928-)，founder of Transformational Grammar4.6 Transformational Grammar现在学习的是第32页，共59页Grammar:there in Transformational Grammar,is in the broadest way,a theory of grammar including phonology and semantics.A linguistic theoryWe shall only focus on the syntactic aspect of transformational grammar.现在学习的是第33页，共59页I.Classical theory Three parts:phrase structure rulestransformational rules,morphophonemic rules.SNP+VP;simple active declarative kernel sentences (短语结构规则建立在成分结构分析法的基础之上，但短语结构规则建立在成分结构分析法的基础之上，但是更加形式化；强调自上而下的生成。是更加形式化；强调自上而下的生成。)现在学习的是第34页，共59页A transformation rule is a sequence of symbols which could be rewritten conventionally as different sequence.passive transformation NP1AuxVNP2NP2 AuxbeenVbyNP1(19)a.The boy has repaired the bicycle.b.The bicycle has been repaired by the boy.现在学习的是第35页，共59页The morphophonemic rules would apply to the output of the transformational rules.Their function is to provide the correct morphological shape to the various parts of the structure and finally to give the appropriate phonological description.(公式公式-言语表达言语表达)现在学习的是第36页，共59页 Tree diagram 现在学习的是第37页，共59页II.Standard theory competence and performance(Chapter 1)deep structure and surface structureThe deep structure of a sentence is its most basic structure both semantically and syntactically.The surface structure is the form that people can actually say.It is fairly arbitrary.Two superficially similar structures may convey a substantially different message.现在学习的是第38页，共59页deep structure and surface structureConsider the following pair of sentences:(20)a.John is easy to please.b.John is eager to please.In the first sentence John is doing the pleasing,and in the latter he is on the receiving end.Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings,for they have quite different deep structures.现在学习的是第39页，共59页Standard theory现在学习的是第40页，共59页Different stages of generative grammar III.Extended Standard TheoryIV.Revised Extended Standard TheoryV.Government and Binding Theory(GB)Principles and Parameters Approach (P&P)VI.Minimalist Program(MP)现在学习的是第41页，共59页Other branches of GG:Throughout the development of transformational grammar,Chomsky has maintained the centrality of syntax.The syntactic component of transformational grammar is the generative core.Other components are interpretive and dependent on the basic and deep syntactic structure.Not everyone agreed with him on this point.Generative semantics:give semantics the central generative role.Case grammar:see syntax as central but prefer to work with“case”structures and dependency relations.现在学习的是第42页，共59页4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar(SFG)Linguists who adopt this view are interested in relating the various kinds of structures and patterns that language shows to the functions that language fulfills and to the social settings in which it is used.Difference from TG:function and contextual,purposefulHallidays three meta-functions:ideational,interpersonal,textualM.A.K Halliday现在学习的是第43页，共59页Ideational 概念功能概念功能Ideational:the function in which we conceptualize the world as a representation of experience.（及物性（动词）、语态、）（及物性（动词）、语态、）(19)The boy kicked the post.(The post was kicked by the boy)(20)The man liked the new house.(21)The child is homeless.(22)The girl laughed.(23)The visitor said“hello”.(24)There is a girl over there.现在学习的是第44页，共59页TransitivityProcessSubcategoryNuclear participantsExampleMaterial物质过程Event(i.e.happening)Action(i.e.doing)Actor(动作者),过程(Process),Goal(目标),(beneficiary/recipient,range/circumstance)She built the house(for the kids)She climbed(the mountain)Mental心理过程PerceptionCognitionAffectionSenser(感知者),过程(Process),Phenomenon(现象)She saw the carShe forgot his nameShe liked his musicRelational关系过程Attributive(归属)Identifying(识别)Carrier(载体),Attribute(属性);Token(标记),Value(价值)Maggie was our leaderMaggie was strongBehavioural行为过程Behaver(行为者)She laughedVerbal言语Sayer(讲话者)She repliedExistential存在过程Existent(存在物)There was a beautiful princess现在学习的是第45页，共59页现在学习的是第46页，共59页Interpersonal 人际功能人际功能Interpersonal:set up and maintain social and personal relations,including communication roles such as questioner and respondent,and express the language users own attitudes and comments on the content of an utterance.（语气（句型）、情态、语调）（语气（句型）、情态、语调）Traditionally declarative,interrogative and imperative现在学习的是第47页，共59页Declarative:give information and perform the function of statementInterrogative:request something and perform the function of question Imperative:give instructions and perform the function of commandsHowever,exact correlation between form and function only occurs in idealized sentences.We can use declarative to ask questions,and to issue instructions.现在学习的是第48页，共59页Mood（语气）（语气）Demand for,and offer of,goods or servicesDemand for,and offer of,linguistic information(27)a.Pass the salt.b.Please pass the salt.c.Can you pass the salt?d.Could you possibly pass the salt?e.You couldnt possibly pass the salt,could you?Politeness increases：The more indirect the demand,the more polite it is felt to be.现在学习的是第49页，共59页Textual 语篇功能语篇功能Textual:enable the speaker or writer to construct a text,and the listener or reader to distinguish a text from a random set of sentences.（主位关系、信息结构（标记理论）、衔接）（主位关系、信息结构（标记理论）、衔接）We have to decide how to order the parts of the message so as(a)to make it clear to our audience,and(b)to emphasize,or make prominent,the essential elements of it.现在学习的是第50页，共59页Information structure 信息结构信息结构 given(old,known)+new(unknown)marked vs unmarked(28)a.There is a bird on the tree.(unmarked)b.A bird is on the tree.(marked)(29)a.James enjoys tennis more than John.(less cumbersome)b.James enjoys tennis more than John enjoys tennis.现在学习的是第51页，共59页thematic relation 主位关系主位关系Theme主位主位:the first constituent,the starting point of the clause-what it is going to be about.Rheme述位述位:the rest of the clause(30)a.Gas explosion killed thousands.b.Thousands were killed by gas explosion.(31)a.The rain came down.(unmarked)b.Down came the rain.(marked)现在学习的是第52页，共59页The book is on a tableThematicthemerhemeInformationoldnewFunctional approaches concentrating on textual aspects feature quite highly in discourse analysis and we will be returning to them in Chapter 7.现在学习的是第53页，共59页Summary4.1 Definition4.2 Word Classes(ten:5+5)4.3 The Prescriptive Approach 4.4 The Descriptive Approach 4.4.1 Structural Analysis(with slots)4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis(tree)4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar(tree,rules,merits,features,problems)4.6 Transformational Grammar(grammar,classic,standard,stages,other branches)4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar(ideational,interpersonal,textual)现在学习的是第54页，共59页Exercise1.Define the following terms.syntax,word class,prescriptive approach,descriptive approach,IC analysis,ultimate constituent,transformational grammar,ideational function,interpersonal function,textual function2.Draw two tree diagrams for the following sentence to show the different relationship of in the car.The dog bit the man in the car.现在学习的是第55页，共59页Questions for chapter three and chapter four1.How many types of morphemes are there in the English language?State what they are and illustrate how they work.2.Give examples to tell the difference between derivation and compounding.3.Give examples to illustrate the distinction between deep structure and surface structure.现在学习的是第56页，共59页Questions for chapter three and chapter four1.How many types of morphemes are there in the English language?State what they are and illu