力力矩压力测量精选PPT.ppt
力力矩压力测量第1页,此课件共70页哦7.1Introduction7.1.1Force(1)Whatistheforce?Forceisoneofthemostimportantphysicalparameters.Variousmechanicalmotionisvirtuallythetransmissionofforceortorque.Forcepossessesthecapabilityinbothstaticanddynamicphenomenon:itcanchangethebodysmotionstatusorcausebodysdeformation.第2页,此课件共70页哦(2)unitofforceN(Newton):istheforcewhichwhenappliedtoamassofonekilogramgivesitanaccelerationof1m/s2.(3)Weight:istheforceexertedonabodyofmassmduetoearthgravity.G=mg;gisthelocalgravityacceleration,typicallyabout9.8m/s2.Weightmeasurementisusuallyspecifiedintermsofthemass.第3页,此课件共70页哦(4)Torque(力矩、扭矩、转矩)Torqueissometimescalledmoment.Itistheproductofaforceanditsarm.Forarotatingshaftofradiusr,thetorqueTappliedtotheshafttocauseittorotateisFr,whereFisthetangentialforceattheradiusr.Whenashaftistwistedasaresultoftheapplicationofatorque,shearstressesandstrainareproducedintheshaftmaterial.第4页,此课件共70页哦(5)PressureAforceFperpendiculartoanareaA,thepressurePisP=F/Aunit:Pascal(Pa)1Pa=1N/m2Atmosphericpressure:theatmospheresurroundingtheearthexertsaforceontheunitearthsurface,thatisthepressurecausedbytheweightoftheatmosphere.Itvarieswithweathercondition,theheightabovesealevel,latitude.第5页,此课件共70页哦Positivepressure:thegaugepressurehigherthantheatmosphericpressure.Gaugepressure:thepressuremeasuredrelativetotheatmosphericpressure.Thedifferentialpressurebetweentheabsolutepressureandtheatmosphericpressure.Absolutepressure:usedforthepressuremeasuredrelativetozeropressure.第6页,此课件共70页哦Negativepressure:thegaugepressurelowerthantheatmosphericpressure.Vacuum:theabsolutepressurelowerthanatmosphere.第7页,此课件共70页哦7.2Measurementmethods7.2.1Forcemeasurementmethods(1)AccordingtostaticordynamiceffectStaticeffect-thestaticforcecausesmechanicaldeformation.Bymeasuringthedeformationorusingsomeinnerstressorforcerelatedphysicaleffects.Dynamiceffect-accordingtotheNewton2ndlaw,theforceisassociatedwithacceleration.Knowingmassandaccelerationmeasured,theforcecanbedefined:F=ma第8页,此课件共70页哦Forcemeasurement1.LeverbalancemethodsBasedontheprincipleofmomentsi.e.atstaticequilibriumthealgebraicsumoftheclockwisemomentsaboutanaxisequalstheanticlockwisemoments.Themomentofaforceaboutanaxisistheproductoftheforceandtheperpendiculardistancefromitslineofactiontotheaxis.Thismethodistypicallyusedforweightsupto1000Kg.2.Forcebalancemethods3.Elasticelementmethods4.Pressuremethods(2)accordingtothemethodsusingdifferentstructure&instruments第9页,此课件共70页哦一种伺服式测力系统。无外力作用时,系统处于初始平衡位置,光线全部被遮住,光敏元件无电流输出,力发生器不产生力矩。当被测力F作用在杠杆上时,系统失去平衡,杠杆发生偏转,窗口打开相应的缝隙。光线通过缝隙,照射到光敏元件上,光敏元件输出与光照成比例的电信号,经放大后加到磁电力矩发生器的旋转线圈上。载流线圈与磁场相互作用而产生电磁力矩,用于平衡被测力F与配重(标准质量m)力的力矩之差;使杠杆重新处于平衡状态。当杠杆处于新的平衡位置时,其转角与被测力F成正比,放大器输出电信号在采样电阻R上的电压U0与被测力F成比例。磁电式力平衡测力系统磁电式力平衡测力系统Forcebalancemethods第10页,此课件共70页哦ElasticelementmethodsSensorsthatareusedformeasurementofforce,torqueorpressureoftencontainanelasticelementthatconvertsthemechanicalquantityintoadeflectionorstrainwhichcanthenbetransformedusinganothersensorintoanelectricalsignal.Electricalresistancestraingaugesarewidelyusedinthiscapacity.第11页,此课件共70页哦Ingeneral,elasticelementsusedforthemeasurementofforcecanbeconsideredtorepresentedbythemodelshowninFig.Whenaforcef(t)actsonthemassofelement,adisplacementisproducedwhichvarieswithtimebeforeobtainingasteady-statevalue.Thedisplacementvariationwithtimeisdescribedbyasecondorderdifferentialequation.Inpractice,oftenitisnotthedisplacementitselftobemeasuredbutthestrainexperiencedbyastraingaugeattachedtowhatisequivalentofthespring.dampingspring第12页,此课件共70页哦Diagramofstraingauge第13页,此课件共70页哦Variousformsofelasticmembersareused.Thesimplestisjustaspringtomakeadevicecalledspringbalance.Theextensionofthespringrepresentstheforceapplied.Loadcells,i.e.elasticmemberswhichtransformforceintodisplacementorstrains,cantakemanyforms.第14页,此课件共70页哦Thestructureoftypicalelasticelementanditsdesigningcalculationasfollows:Columnarloadcell第15页,此课件共70页哦Provingring测力环BendingbeamAppliedforce第16页,此课件共70页哦Therelativeextensionofstraingaugeinelasticelement:l-Totalextensionofstraingaugel-theoriginallengthofstraingaugeF-appliedforceA-workingareaofelasticelementE-Yangmodelofelasticelement-stressofelasticelement第17页,此课件共70页哦Sensitivity:-poisonconstantofelasticelementTotalstrainofelasticelement:Outputofelectricalbridge:Ingeneral,selectk=2,Voltagesensitivity(mv/v):第18页,此课件共70页哦Otherprincipleofforcemeasurement(1)Piezoelectricdynamometry压电式测力仪利用压电材料(石英晶体、压电陶瓷)的压电效应,将被测力经弹性元件转换为与其成正比的电荷量输出,通过测量电路测出输出电荷,从而实现对力值的测量。弹性元件感受力F时压电材料产生电荷Q输出dij:Piezoelectricconstant适用于动态力的测量第19页,此课件共70页哦由工业纯铁、硅钢等铁磁材料制成的铁心在机械力的作用下磁导率发生变化称为压磁效应,或称磁弹性效应。如图a所示,在铁心上安置一对线圈一励磁线圈和测量线圈。两线圈的平面相互垂直,若无外力作用,励磁线圈中心交流电流所建立的磁场对测量线圈没有输出,见图b。若外力作用在铁心上,铁心磁导率改变,则测量线圈被励磁线圈中的磁场交链而输出比例于外力大小的信号,见图c。Piezomagneticdynamometry第20页,此课件共70页哦TorquemeasurementqTorquemeasurementareusedforrotatingshaftstodeterminethepowertransmittedandalsotomonitoragainstfailureasaresultofshearstress.Themeasurementoftorqueisalwayslinkedwiththepowerandrotatingspeed.qTheworkdoneistheproductoftheforceandthedistancetraveledinthedirectionoftheforce.Workdonepersecond=F2rn=(Powertransmittedbyarotatingshaft=2nT=T)F:TangentialforceataradiusrT:Torqueappliedtoashafttocauseittorotate.第21页,此课件共70页哦Basicmethodsoftorquemeasurement:(1)Transmissionmethod(扭轴法)(2)Forcebalancemethod(3)Powertransformationmethod第22页,此课件共70页哦(1)Whenatorqueappliedtoanelasticshaft,asaresult,theshaftistwistedandshearstressandstrainsareproducedintheshaftmaterial.G:shearmodelofmaterial;:TorsionangleIP:polarsecondmoment(极惯性矩)第23页,此课件共70页哦Whenthetorsionanglemeasured:Whentheshearstressofshaftmeasured:Whenthestrainofshaftmeasured:45、135:thestrainsalongthedirectionof45o、135orelatedtoaxisoftheshaft.第24页,此课件共70页哦1.电阻应变式转矩仪在转轴上或直接在被测轴上,沿轴线的45。或135。方向将应变片粘贴上,当转轴受转矩M作用时,应变片产生应变,其应变量与转矩M成线性关系。对空心圆柱形轴:对方形截面轴:G为转轴的弹性模量第25页,此课件共70页哦第26页,此课件共70页哦Whenthetorqueismeasuredforarotatingshaft,itisnecessarytoobtaintheoutputsignalfromthebridgeconnectionofthestraingaugeswhichareontherotatingshaftandprovidethed.c.supplyvoltageforthebridge.Onemethodofdoingthisisviasliprings.Aproblemwithsuchanarrangementisthenoisegeneratedbyvariationsincontactresistancebetweentheringsandthebrushes.第27页,此课件共70页哦第28页,此课件共70页哦Analternativemethodistomounttheentirebridge,togetherwithitsvoltagesupply,ontherotatingshaftandusethebridgeoutputtomodulatearadiosignalwhichisthentransmittedtonearby,stationary,equipmentfordisplayorrecording.第29页,此课件共70页哦 第30页,此课件共70页哦 第31页,此课件共70页哦(2)力平衡法它是利用平衡转矩M0去平衡被测转矩M,从而求得M的方法。当转轴受转矩作用时,机体上必定同时作用着方向相反的平衡力矩(或称支座反力矩),因此测量出机体上的平衡力矩就可以知被测转矩大小。第32页,此课件共70页哦图为反力法测量小转矩的测试系统。由测量轴2、静压空气支承3、角位移传感器5、力矩电动机4和标准电阻Ro及电路组成。第33页,此课件共70页哦(3)能量转换法这是按能量守恒定律来测量力矩的仪器。它是通过测量其它与转矩有关的能量系数(如电能系数)来确定被测力矩大小的。根据能量转换法制作的测力矩仪一般多用于测量各种电机的转矩。因其影响因素较多测量误差大,所以只有测量电参数的电机转矩测量仪应用较多。第34页,此课件共70页哦PressuremeasurementTogetherwithtemperatureandflow,pressureisthemostimportantparametersinindustrialprocesscontrolTheunitofpressureisthePascal(Pa)with1Pabeing1N/m2Atthesurfaceoftheearth,theatmosphericpressureisgenerallyabout100KPa.Thisissometimesreferredtoasapressureof1bar.第35页,此课件共70页哦1.Manometers(液体式压力计)U-tubemanometerThecisternmanometerTheinclinedtubemanometer2.Diaphragms(薄膜,弹性式压力计)ReluctancediaphragmgaugeCapacitancediaphragmgaugeStraingaugediaphragmgaugeForce-balancediaphragmgaugePiezoelectricdiaphragmgauge3.Bourdontubes第36页,此课件共70页哦 Dead-Weight Tester Schematic Calibrationofthepressuregaugesintheregionof20Pato2000kPaisgenerallybymeansoftheDead-weighttester.Pressureisproducedbywindinginapiston.Thepressureisdeterminedbyaddingweightstotheplatformsothatitremainsataconstantheight.第37页,此课件共70页哦P2P1ThebasicmanometerconsistsofaU-tubecontainingaliquid.Apressuredifferencebetweenthegasesabovetheliquidinthetwolimbsproducesadifferencehinverticalheightsoftheliquidinthetwolimbs.Ifoneofthelimbsisopentotheatmospherethenthepressuredifferenceisthegaugepressure.Manometers第38页,此课件共70页哦Water,alcoholandmercuryarecommonlyusedmanometricliquids.U-tubemanometersaresimpleandcheapandcanbeusedforpressuredifferencesintherange20Pato140KPa.Theaccuracyistypicallyabout1%.Temperatureaffect-liquidexpansion第39页,此课件共70页哦ThusthepressurewhenmeasuredbyaU-tubemanometeratatemperature,whenthemanometerliquiddensityat0Cisknown,isgivenby:第40页,此课件共70页哦CisternmanometerAnindustrialformoftheU-tubemanometeriscisternmanometer.Ithasoneofthelimbswithamuchgreatercross-sectionalareathantheother.Adifferenceinpressurebetweenthetwolimbscausesadifferenceinliquidlevelwithliquidflowingfromonelimbtotheother.HhdP1P2A2A1第41页,此课件共70页哦Thisformofmanometerthusonlyrequirethelevelofliquidinonelimbtobemeasuredfromafixedpoint.第42页,此课件共70页哦TheinclinedtubemanometerTheinclinedtubemanometerisaU-tubemanometerwithonelimbhavingalargercross-sectionthantheotherandthenarrowerlimbbeinginclinedatsomeangletothehorizontal.ItisgenerallyusedforthemeasurementofsmallpressuredifferencesandgivesgreateraccuracythantheconventionalU-tubemanometer.第43页,此课件共70页哦HdhxP1P2SinceA2ismuchgreaterthanA1,theequationapproximatesto:Initialzerolevelwithnopressuredifference第44页,此课件共70页哦Bourdontubes第45页,此课件共70页哦Thebourdontubemaybeintheformofa“C”,aflatspiral,ahelicalspiral.Inallforms,anincreaseinthepressureinthetubecausesthetubetostraightenouttoanextentwhichdependsonthepressure.Thisdisplacementmaybemonitoredinavarietyofways,forexample,todirectlymoveapointeracrossascale,tomoveasliderofapotentiometer,tomovethecoreofanLVDT.第46页,此课件共70页哦Withdiaphragmpressuregauges,adifferenceinpressurebetweentwosidesofadiaphragmresultsinitblowingouttoonesideortheother.Ifthefluidforwhichthepressureisrequiredisadmittedtoonesideofthediaphragmandtheothersideisopentotheatmosphere,thediaphragmgaugegivesthegaugepressure.Iffluidsatdifferentpressuresareadmittedtothetwosidesofthediaphragm,thegaugegivesthepressuredifference.Diaphragms第47页,此课件共70页哦1Reluctancediaphragmgauge(磁阻隔膜压力计)Thedisplacementofthecentralpartofthediaphragmincreasesthereluctanceofthecoilononesideofthediaphragmanddecreasesitontheother.Withthetwocoilsconnectedinoppositearmsofana.c.bridge,theoutofbalancevoltageisrelatedtothepressuredifferencecausingthediaphragmdisplacement第48页,此课件共70页哦Capacitancepressuretransducerswereoriginallydevelopedforuseinlowvacuumresearch.Thiscapacitancechangeresultsfromthemovementofadiaphragmelement.Thediaphragmisusuallymetalormetal-coatedquartzandisexposedtotheprocesspressureononesideandtothereferencepressureontheother.Dependingonthetypeofpressure,thecapacitivetransducercanbeeitheranabsolute,gauge,ordifferentialpressuretransducer.第49页,此课件共70页哦Thediaphragmisbetweentwofixedplatesanditsmovementthusincreasesthecapacitancewithrespecttoonefixedplateanddecreasesitwithrespecttotheother.AsshowninFigure,thedeflectionofthediaphragmcausesachangeincapacitancethatisdetectedbyabridgecircuit.Thecapacitorcanalsoformpartofthetuningcircuitofafrequencymodulatedoscillatorandsogiveanelectricaloutputrelatedtothepressuredifferenceacrossthediaphragm.第50页,此课件共70页哦式中,E为弹性膜片的弹性模量;u为材料的泊松比第51页,此课件共70页哦 Potentiometric Pressure Transducer(force balance bellow gauge)第52页,此课件共70页哦Measurementoflowpressures(vacuum)Vacuumtendstobeusedforpressureslessthantheatmosphericpressure,namely1.013105Pa.Aunitthatisoftenusedforsuchpressureisthetorr(托),thisbeingthepressureequivalenttothatgivenbyacolumnofmercuryofheight1mm.1mmHg=133.322Pa=1torrAtmosphericpressureisabout760mmHgThelowertheabsolutepressureis,thehigherthedegreeofvacuumis.第53页,此课件共70页哦现在真空技术在生产、科研中的用途愈来愈广,在整个真空范围内所采用的测量方法也是多种多样的。按测量方法的原理来分可以分为:基于力的作用原理力的作用原理:U形管,波登管式,波纹管式,膜片式;基于压缩作用原理:压缩作用原理:麦氏真空计;基于导热作用原理:导热作用原理:电阻真空计,热电偶真空计;基于电离作用原理:电离作用原理:热阴极式,冷阴极式,放射性真空计。第54页,此课件共70页哦U形管真空计是最简单的真空计。其结构原理如图所示。一根由玻璃管制成的U形管中盛上水银或油,U形管一端接到真空系统上,另一端为大气。随着系统中真空度的升高,U形管真空侧的液面在大气作用下随之上升。这样,依据两管中校面的高度差,就可以测得真空系统中的真空度,即p=pa-h,其中p为系统中真空度,pa为大气压值,h为两液面之差。第55页,此课件共70页哦(2)压缩真空计压缩真空计利用波义耳定律,将被测真空系统中一定的残余气体加以压缩,比较压缩前后体积、压力的变化,即能算出真空度。玻义耳玻义耳-马略特定律马略特定律 它反映气体的体积随压强改变而改变的规律。对于一定质量的气体,在其温度保持不变时,它的压强和体积成反比;或者说,其压强P与它的体积V的乘积为一常量,即PV=C(常数)(T不变时)或P1V1P2V2=PnVn实际气体只是在压强不太高、温度不太低的条件下才服从这一定律。第56页,此课件共70页哦麦克劳真空计麦氏计是一种绝对真空计,测量范围为1.3xl031.3108帕,精度较高,可作为其它真空计的标准。它是于1874年由麦克劳研制的,故命名为麦克劳真空计,简称麦氏计。其结构如图32所示。主要由毛细管A、毛细管B、玻璃泡、导液管、水银瓶构成。第57页,此课件共70页哦毛细管A、玻璃泡及下面一段管子(到a-a面为止)的体积为V1。测量前需用油封机械泵将水银瓶抽真空,使水银面处于a-a位置。这时,玻璃泡与真空系统相通,其压强与真空系统相同,均为p。转动切换阀门,切断油封机械泵,使水银瓶与干燥空气相通。此时,水银瓶中水银在干燥空气压力作用下,沿导液管上升,充满玻璃泡然后沿毛细管A上升,使玻璃泡和毛细管A中气体被压缩到毛细管A的顶部,其体积为V2。因管A中压强高于管B中压强,使两个毛细管产生高度差h,这时,根据物理学中波义耳定律就可计算出真空系统中的压强,即pV1=(p+h)V2其中p为真空系统中压强。第58页,此课件共70页哦2热导式真空计热导式真空计是根据在低压强下气体热导率与其压力之间关系制成的一种测量低真空的相对真空计。原理:基于大气体压强低于某一定值时,气体的导热系数K与P成正比,即:K=bPb:比例常数第59页,此课件共70页哦热导真空计的工作原理是假设灯丝由导热损失的热量与加热电流I所产生的热量平衡时,灯丝温度不变。其平衡方程为其中R为灯丝电阻;E1为气体分子迁移热量;E2为辐射迁移热量;E3为引出导线的迁移热量。若由于压力减小而使E1减小,则当I不变时,平衡方程将失去平衡,使灯丝温度变化。由此可根据灯丝温度来衡量压力的变化。所以热导真空计是通过测量灯丝温度来决定压力大小的。第60页,此课件共70页哦根据测定气体热传导方法的不同,热导式真空计可分为电阻真空计和热电偶真空计两种。(1)电阻真空计又称皮喇尼真空计它主要由电阻式规管和测量电路两部分组成。电阻式规管如图所示。在电阻规管内封装一只电阻温度系数较大的电阻丝,常用的有钨丝和铂丝。测量时规管与被测真空计系统相连。在较低的压力(小于13.3Pa)时,热电阻丝的电阻值取决于周围气体的压强。第61页,此课件共70页哦第62页,此课件共70页哦热偶真空计测量真空度的元件是热偶规管,其结构见图。它主要由玻璃壳、铂丝、热电偶构成。铂丝用于加热热电偶,通以恒定电流,其温度为100200。热电偶是由镍铬镍铝、或镍康铜的丝制成的,其作用是在它的加热端与冷端(非加热端)温度不同时,会产生温差电动势。我们利用真空度不同,气体传热性不真空度不同,气体传热性不同,进而使温差电动势不同同,进而使温差电动势不同的特性来测量真空度的。(2)热电偶真空计(相对真空计)第63页,此课件共70页哦通过测量温差电动势,就间接地测得了真空度。热偶计只能测量低的真空度,真空度再高时,压强变化与气体热传导无关,故此真空计不能用于高真空测量。第64页,此课件共70页哦3 电电 离离 真真 空空 计计(量程范围为:110-3510-10托)电离真空计诞生于1916年,由巴克利首先研制成功。以后不断地改进,使其测量范围达到1.3102一1.3105帕,变成了高真空区域广泛使用的真空计。这种真空计可以远距离测量,易于实现自动记录及控制,由于有炽热的灯丝,不适于测高氧气体。第65页,此课件共70页哦电离真空计是通过在稀薄气体中引起电离然后利用离子电流测量压力。在气体中如果有动能足够大的电子与气体分子相碰撞,它可以从气体分子中击出一个或几个电子使气体分子成为正离子。把这种正离子收集到一个电极上使其产生离子电流,在稀薄气体中,它与气体压力有关。电离真空计有三种形式:热阴极电离真空计、冷阴极电离真空计和放射性电离真空计。第66页,此课件共70页哦热阴极电离真空计主要由圆筒式热阴极电离规管和测量电路两部分组成。测量时规管与被测真空系统相连。通电后阴极加热所发射的电子在带正电的加速极作用下,以加速度运动,当电子的动能足够大,在飞向加速极的路途中与管内低压气体分子碰撞,即可使气体分子电离。电离产生的电子和正离子分别在加速极和收集极(带负电位)上形成电流Ie和离子流Ii。当压力足够低(低于10-1Pa)时,离子电流Ii与电子电流Ie之比正比于气体的压力p,即第67页,此课件共70页哦电离规管由阴极(灯丝)、螺旋形栅极(加速极)和圆筒形收集极构成。第68页,此课件共70页哦式中,k为规管的灵敏度。由于用电离真空计测量压力时,电子电流保持不变,故第69页,此课件共70页哦第70页,此课件共70页哦