语言学Morphology形态学.pptx
Morphology,asasub-branchoflinguistics,referstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Generallyspeaking,morphologycanfurtherdividedintotwobroadcategories,namely,inflectional(屈折)morphologyandderivationalmophology,whicharebothconcernedwiththesmallestunitatthegrammaticallevel.第1页/共84页1.WordWord:aunitofexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetherspokenorwritten1.1 Three senses of“word”:1)A physically definable unit:Wordmaybeseenasaclusterofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweentowpausesorblanks.2)Word both as a general term and as a specific term:boy,boyscheck,checks,checked,checking第2页/共84页3)A grammatical unit:sentence clause phraseword morpheme第3页/共84页1.2 Identification of words1)Stability:theconstituentpartsofacomplexwordcannotberearrangedchairmanmanchairThechairmanlookedattheaudience.Theaudiencelookedatthechairman.2)Relative uninterruptibility:Newelementscannotbeinsertedintoawordevenwhenthereareseveralpartsinaword.disappointmentdis+appoint+mentPaul,(Jane)andRebeccaaremyclassmates.第4页/共84页3)A minimum free form:the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself,e.g.-Is Jane coming tonight?-Possibly.Hi.Wonderful.第5页/共84页1.3 Classification of words1)Variable vs.invariable words:Variablewords:Onecouldfindorderedandregularseriesofgrammaticallydifferentwordforms;ontheotherhand,partofthewordremainsconstantfollow,follows,following,followed;mat,matsInvariablewords:thosewordssuchassince,when,seldom,through,hello.Theydonothaveinflectiveendings.第6页/共84页2)Grammatical words vs.lexical words:Grammaticalwords:expressgrammaticalmeanings,suchasconjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronounsLexicalwords:havelexicalmeanings,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.Thelexicalwordscarrythemaincontentofalanguage(contentwords)andthegrammaticalwordsservetolinkthedifferentpartsofasentencetogether(functionwords).第7页/共84页3)Closed-class words vs.open-class words:Closed-class:awordwhosemembershipisfixedorlimited.Newmembersarenotregularlyadded.Pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc.Open-class:Awordwhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited.Nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbsNote:Thedistinctionisnotquiteasclear-cutasitseems.Prepositions:regarding,throughout,outof,accordingto,withregardto,inspiteof,bemeansof;Auxiliaryverbs第8页/共84页4)Word class:ItisclosetothenotionofPartsofSpeechintraditionalgrammar.Tenwordclassesareestablished:noun,pronoun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition,conjunction,numeral,interjection,article.第9页/共84页Some newcategories:A.Particles(小品词):theinfinitemarker(to),thenegativemarker(not),thesubordinateunitsinphrasalverbs(getby,doup,lookback,turnin,etc.)B.Auxiliaries(助动词):usedtoberegardedasverbs,linguiststendtodefinethemasaseparatewordclassratherthanverbs,suchasdo,does,did,will,shall,have,has,had,etc.第10页/共84页C.Pro-form(替代形式):referstotheclosedsetsofitemswhichcanbeusedtosubstituteforanominalgroup(名词词组)orasinglenoun.Pro-adjective:Yourpenisred.Soismine.Pro-verb:HeknowsEnglishbetterthanhedid.Pro-adverb:HehopeshellwinandIhopesotoo.Pro-locative(代处所词):Jameshidingthere,behindthedoor.第11页/共84页D.Determiners(限定词):wordswhichareusedbeforethenounactingasheadofanounphrase,anddeterminethekindofreferencethenounphrasehas,e.g.the,a(n),some,allTherearethreesubclassesofdeterminers:1)Predeterminers:all,both,half,double,twice,threetimes,one-third,one-fifth2)Centraldeterminers:a,an,the,this,that,these,those,every,each,some,any,no,either,neither,my,our,your,his,her,its,their第12页/共84页3)Postdeterminers:cardinalnumerals(基数词),ordinalnumerals(序数词),generalordinals(一般顺序词):next,last,past,(an)other,additionalandotherquantifierslikemany,afew,several,much,little,alotof,plentyof,agreatdealof,agreatnumberofWhendifferentsub-classesofdeterminersoccurtogether,theyfollowtheorderofpredeterminers+centraldeterminers+postdeterminers.第13页/共84页Withineachsubclass,themembersareusuallyexclusiveofeachother.*their all trouble all their trouble*five the all boys all the five boys*all this boy all these boys*all both girlsButordinalnumeralsandgeneralordinalsmayoccurbeforecardinalnumerals.the first two days another three weeks第14页/共84页The formation of wordMorphemes:Technically,amorphemeisdefinedasaminimalmeaningfulunitinthegrammaticalsystemofalanguage.Thecomponentsofawordareknownasmorphemes.Theythemselvescannotbefurtheranalyzed:chairman:chair,mantownhall:town,hallboys:boy,-schecking:check,-ingdisappointment:dis-,appoint,-ment第15页/共84页Morpheme-theminimalunitofmeaning-Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Wordsmayconsistofonemorphemeormoremorphemes,e.g.1)morphemeboy,desire2)morphemeboy+ish,desir(e)+ble3)morphemeboy+ish+ness,desir(e)+bl(e)+ity4)morphemegentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity5)morphemeun+gentle+man+li+ness6)morphemedis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism7)morphemeanti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism第16页/共84页Sememe vs.Morpheme,and Phoneme vs.Morpheme1)Sememe vs.morphemeSememe(义素)isthesmallestcomponentofmeaning.e.g.Themorphemeshasonlyonesememe:PLURALITY,meaningmorethanone.Therelationshipbetweensememeandmorpheme,fivemappingandnon-mappingoccasions:i.Onemorphemevs.onesememeOnemorphemehasonlyonesememe.e.g.less,meaningWITHOUTfearless,careless,ceaseless,countless,doubtless,shameless,faceless,speechless第17页/共84页ii.Onemorphemevs.morethanonesememeOnemorphememayhavetwoormorethantwosememes.e.g.a-fivesememes1)away,apart “分离，离开”,2)aboard,aside “朝，向”3)asleep,awash,ablush“在，处于,的”4)atypical,asymmetry,abnormal“不，无，非”5)arise,await,arouse,ashamed 表示加强的意思第18页/共84页iii.Onesememevs.morethanonemorphemeOnesememeisexpressedwithtwoormorethantwomorphemes.表示no和non意义的语素除了a-之外，还有其他的语素，例如e-,dis-,il-,in-,im-,ir-,ne-,un-,non-等。amoral,disagree,erostrate(无喙的),illiterate,impolite,neither,untidy,irregular,nonsmoker第19页/共84页iv.MorphemesthathavenospecificsememeTherearealsomorphemesthathavenospecificsememe,butmayhelpchangegrammaticalandsemanticcategories.e.g.en-enjoy第20页/共84页v.FunctionchangesinbothsememeandmorphemewithoutmorphemechangeTheremayalsobenomorphemechangeinaword,butboththegrammaticalandthesemanticcategorieswouldchangeaccordingtothecontextitoccurs.e.g.runrunacompany,inashortrun第21页/共84页Lexeme(词位)Lexeme:theabstractunitunderlyingthesmallestunitinthelexicalsystemofalanguage,whichappearsindifferentgrammaticalcontextsWrite-write,writes,wrote,writing,writtenFat-fat,fatter,fattest第22页/共84页AllomorphSomemorphemeshaveasingleforminallcontexts,suchas“dog,bark,cat”,etc.Inotherinstances,theremaybesomevariation,thatis,amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.Theyare said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme,the pluralmorphememayberepresentedby:map-mapssdog-dogszwatch-watchesizcountry-countriesizmouse-miceaiox-oxenntooth-teethsheep-sheepphenomenon-phenomenaEachoftheunderlinedpartiscalledanallomorphofpluralmorpheme.第23页/共84页Likephoneme,morphemeisanabstractunit.Morphemesareputbetweenbraceslike.Somemorphemicformsrepresentdifferentmorphemesandthushavesememes.第24页/共84页2)Morpheme vs.PhonemePhoneme:thesmallestmeaningfulunitofsoundMorpheme:thesmallestmeaningfulunitingrammarThecorrespondencebetweenthetwolevelsoflanguage:MORPHONOLOGYorMORPHONEMICS-abranchoflinguisticsthatreferstotheanalysisandclassificationofthephonologicalfactorsthataffectthemorphemeforms,andcorrespondingly,themorphologicalfactorsthataffectthephonemeforms.So,itstudiestheinterrelationshipbetweenphonologyandmorphology.第25页/共84页Thereareseveraloccasionsoftherelationship:i.Asinglephonemevs.asinglemorphemeAsinglephonememayrepresentasinglemorpheme,buttheyarenotidentical.e.g.aii.Asinglemorphemevs.multiplephonemeMorphemesmayalsoberepresentedbyphonologicalstructuresotherthanasinglephoneme.Morphemesmaybemonophonemic,monosyllabicorpolysyllabic.e.g.breikbreak第26页/共84页iv.MorphemicconditionsMorphemeshapesvaryaccordingtobothphonologicalconditionsandtotheconditionsoftheirown.Therearetwocases:a)Phonologicallyconditioned:Theformorshapeofmorphemesmaybeconditionedbyphonologicalfactors.injusticeimperfectillogicalirregularinefficientimpenetrableillegalirresponsibleinfirmimpossibleilliterateirresolvable 第27页/共84页b)Morphologicallyconditioned:Morphemescanalsobeconditionedbymorphologicalfactors.Threerequirements:First,alltheallomorphsshouldhavethesamesememe,e.g.thepluralmorphemeSecond,alltheallomorphsshouldbeincomplementarydistribution.Third,allomorphsthathavethesamesememeshouldoccurinparallelformation.第28页/共84页Classification of morphemesMorphemescanbeclssifiedbothsemanticallyandstructurally.Semantically,morphemesaregroupedintotwogeneralcategories:rootmorphemesandaffixational morphemes,orsimplyspeaking,rootsandaffixes.Structurally,theyalsofallintotwoclasses:free morphemesandbound morphemes.第29页/共84页Freemorpheme&boundmorphemeFreemorpheme-isonethatmayconstituteaword(freeform)byitself,suchasbed,tree,sing,dance,etc.Boundmorpheme-isonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,suchas“-s”in“dogs”,“al”in“national”,“dis-”in“disclose”,“ed”in“recorded”,etc.第30页/共84页Derivationalmorpheme&inflectionalmorphemeDerivationalmorphemes-themorphemeswhichchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.correct-incorrect,edit-co-edit,modern-modernize,length-lengthen,fool-foolish,etc.Inflectionalmorphemes-themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon;theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,e.g.a)number:tablesmatchesfactoriesb)person,finitenessandaspect:talk/talks/talking/talkedc)case:John/Johns d)comparison:tall/taller/tallest第31页/共84页SomeothertermsAffixesRootStemBase第32页/共84页AffixesAffixesarelexicallydependentonrootsanddonotconveythefundamentalmeaningofwords,suchasdis-inthewordsdislikeanddishonest,andfulincarefulandhopeful.Inotherwords,anaffixisusedonlytoaddtooralterthemeaningofaroottowhichitisattached.第33页/共84页Affixesarelimitedinnumberinalanguage,andaregenerallyclassifiedintoinflectionalandderivationalones.Thederivationalaffixescanbedividedintothreesubtypes:prefix(前缀),suffix(后缀),andinfix(中缀).Prefix:in-,para-,mini-，un-,dis-,sub-Suffix:-ise,-tion，-ful,-ly,-ness,-mentInfix:foot/feet,goose/geese,morphology,phonetic,idiomatic,habitual,raticide,Platonic 第34页/共84页RootArootisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixes(inflectional&derivational)areremoved,e.g.“desire”in“desirable”,“care”in“carefully”,“nation”in“internationalism”,“believe”in“unbeliev(e)able”,“gress”in“progressive”第35页/共84页Arootmaybefreeorbound,butanaffixisnaturallybound.First,freerootmorphemesarethosethatcanstandbythemselvesandarethebaseformsofwords,e.g.black(black,blackbird,blackboard,blacksmith);correct(incorrect,correctness).Freerootmorphemesarepotentiallyunlimitedinnumberinalanguage.Second,therearerelativelyafewboundrootmorphemesinEnglish,e.g.-ceive(receive,perceive,conceive);-mit(remit,permit,commit,submit);-tain(retain,contain,maintain);-cur(incur,recur,occur);-spect(inspect,respect,expect,suspect,prospect,spectator,spectacles,etc.)第36页/共84页Third,afewEnglishrootsmayhavebothfreeandboundvariants.Sleepandchildsleptandchildren第37页/共84页StemAstemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffix(屈折词缀)canbeadded.“Friend”in“friends”,and“friendship”in“friendships”.Thus,astemispartofaword-formwhichremainswhenallinflectionalaffixeshavebeenremoved,e.g.“undesiralbe”in“undesirables”.第38页/共84页BaseAbaseisanyformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.Thismeansanystemandrootcanbetermedasabase.第39页/共84页Thedifferencebetweenroot,stem&baseAbasecanbeaddedbybothinflectional&derivationalaffixeswhileastemcanbeaddedonlybyinflectionalaffixes;Abaseisderivationallyanalyzable,e.g.“undesire”in“undesirable”whilearootcannotbefurtheranalyzed,e.g.“desire”in“undesirable”.Root,stemandbasecanbethesameform,e.g.“desire”in“desired”;“Undesirable”in“undesirables”iseitherastemorabase;“Desirable”in“undesirable”isonlyabase.第40页/共84页Word formationWordformation:theprocessofhowwordsareformedTwosub-types:ThecompositionaltypeCOMPOUNDThederivationaltypeDERIVATION第41页/共84页i.Compound:thosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,thewaytojoinmorethanoneseparatewordtoproduceasingleform smartphone,cutting-edge,domainname,cloakroom,state-of-the-art,nursinghome.Incompounds,thelexicalmorphemescanbeofdifferentwordclasses.第42页/共84页Compoundscanbefurtherdividedintotwokinds:theendocentric compound(向心复合词)theexocentric compound(离心复合词)Endocentric:one element serves as the head,the relationship of“a kind of”;e.g.self-control:a kind of control armchair:a kind of chairExocentric:there is no head,so not a relationship of “a kind of something”,e.g.scarecrow:not a kind of crow breakneck:not a kind of neck第43页/共84页CompoundsNoun compoundsdaybreak(N+V)playboy(V+N)haircut(N+V)callgirl(V+N)windmill(N+N)Verb compoundsbrainwash(N+V)lipread(N+V)babysit(N+V)Adjective compoundsmaneating(N+Ving)heartfelt(N+Ved)dutyfree(N+adj.)Preposition compoundsinto(P+P)throughout(P+P)第44页/共84页SomepointsaboutcompoundsWhenthetwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwillbeinthiscategory,e.g.postbox,landlady,icy-cold,blue-blackWhenthetwowordsfallintodifferentcategories,theclassofthesecondorfinalwordwillbethegrammaticalcategoryofthecompound,e.g.head-strong,pickpocketCompoundshavedifferentstresspatternsfromthenon-compoundedwordsequence,e.g.redcoat,greenhouseThemeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts.第45页/共84页Ways of writing a compound:Solid:Compoundscanbewrittenasasingleword:wardrobe,bodyguard,seashore,cupboard.Hyphenated:Theycanalsobejoinedwithahyphen:wedding-ring,traffic-light,simple-minded,over-the-counter,Open:Somecanbewrittenwithordinaryspacesbetweenthetwoparts:washingmachine,trafficisland,taxbreak.Freevariation:businessman,business-man,businessmanwinebottle,wine-bottle,winebottle第46页/共84页ii.Derivation:Derivationshowstherelationbetweenrootsandaffixes.un+consciousunconsciousnation+alnationalnational+izenationalizenationalize+ationnationalizationDerivationscanmakethewordclassoftheoriginaleitherchangedorunchanged.第47页/共84页Class-changing:NV:lengthen,hospitalize,discardNA:friendly,delightful,speechlessVN:worker,employee,inhabitantVA:acceptable,adorableAN:rapidness,rapidityAV:deafen,sweetenAdjAdv:exactly,quickly第48页/共84页Class-preserving:NN:nonsmoker,ex-wife,bookletVV:disobey,unfastenAA:grayish,irrelevant第49页/共84页Formsderivedfromderivationarerelativelylargeandpotentiallyopen.pre-,-ableInEnglishthereisusuallyoneinflectionalaffixperword,butmultiplederivationalaffixesareallowed.monumental,transcendental,capability,musicality,accountancy,dependency,characterization,joyfulness,silliness,effectively,beautifully,delightfully,AmericanismSomewordscancarrybothprefixesandsuffixes.Bipartisan,abbreviation,bigamist,continuously,contradiction第50页/共84页Lexical Change3.1Lexicalchangeproper(特有的词汇变化)1)Invention(新创词语):Facebook,Twitter,drones,microblog,e-tailer,smartphone,tsunami2)Blending(混成法):acomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords第51页/共84页smoke+fogsmogmotorist+hotelmotelbreakfast+lunchbrunchmodulator+demodulatormodemsmoking+flirtingsmirting 边吸烟边跟异性搭讪advertisement+editorialadvertorialeducation+entertainmentedutainment
