英语专业考研语言学复习资料.pdf
英 语 专 业 考 研 语 言 学 复 习 资 料 主 要 内 容 第 一 部 分 胡 壮 麟 语 言 学 教 程 第 一 章 语 言 学 教 程 各 章 节 提 纲 笔 记 第 二 章 语 言 学 教 程 重 难 点 学 习 提 示 第 三 章 语 言 学 教 程（修 订 版）测 试 题 第 四 章 语 言 学 教 程 课 后 答 案 第 五 章 胡 壮 麟 的 语 言 学 术 语 英 汉 对 照 翻 译 表 第 二 部 分 戴 炜 栋 简 明 语 言 学 教 程 第 三 部 分 语 言 学 试 题 集 锦 精 华第 一 部 分 胡 壮 麟 语 言 学 教 程 第 一 章 语 言 学 教 程 各 章 节 提 纲 笔 记 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1.Language is very essential to human beings.2.In language there are many things we should know.3.For further understanding,we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication.It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols usedfor human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which candistinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 A rbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures,such that units ofthe primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the twolevels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and itsrecursiveness.Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly withoutany definite limit.The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for thepossibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present(in time and space)at the moment ofconversation.1.4 Origin of language1.The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environmentthey lived and speech developed from that.2.The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors,they utter instinctive sounds of pains,angerand joy which gradually developed into language.3.The ttyo-he-ho theoryAs primitive people worked together,they produced some rhythmic grunts whichgradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson,language has six functions:1.Referential:to convey message and information;2.Poetic:to indulge in language for its own sake;3.Emotive:to express attitudes,feelings and emotions;4.Conative:to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5.Phatic:to establish communion with others;6.Metalingual:to clear up intentions,words and meanings.Halliday(1994)proposes a theory of metafunctions of language.It means that language hasthree metaiunctions:1.Ideational function:to convey new information,to communicate a content that isunknown to the hearer;2.Interpersonal function:embodying all use of language to express social and personalrelationships;3.Textual function:referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretchof spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a livingpassage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin,language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and peopleoften use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish andmaintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status ofpersons,as in marriage ceremonies,the sentencing of criminals,the blessing of children,the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony,and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is socrucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone orsomething.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small,seeminglymeaningless expressions such as Good morning,God bless you,Nice day,etc.,tomaintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it,such as a babys babbling or a chanters chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself.E.g.Ican use the word“book to talk about a book,and I can also use the expression theword book,to talk about the sign b o o-k”itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language.It studies not just one language of any onecommunity,but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds,it includes three main areas:articulatoryphonetics,acoustic phonetics,and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure,distribution,and sequencing ofspeech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes andword-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentencesin a language,or simply,the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects,distinct from microlinguistics,whichdealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind,in processingand producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in languageand society,including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culturein a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the useof computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs.prescriptivelb say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries todiscover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actuallyconform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules,or norms,of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language andsettle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example,ttDon,t say X.is a prescriptive command;People dont say X.is adescriptive statement.The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be anddescribing how things are.In the 18lh century,all the main European languages werestudied prescriptively.However,modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because thenature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead ofprescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs.diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant(usually at present)as its point ofobservation.Saussures diachronic description is the study of a language through thecourse of its history.E.g.a study of the features of the English used in Shakespearestime would be synchronic,and a study of the changes English has undergone since thenwould be a diachronic study.In modern linguistics,synchronic study seems to enjoypriority over diachronic study.The reason is that unless the various state of a languageare successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have takenplace in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue&paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actualphenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole.Langue is relative stable andsystematic,parole is subject to personal and situational constraints;langue is not spokenby an individual,parole is always a naturally occurring event.What a linguist should do,according to Saussure,is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts,i.e.to discover theregularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky,a language users underlying knowledge about the systemof rules is called the linguistic competence,and the actual use of language in concretesituations is called performance.Competence enables a speaker to produce andunderstand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakesand ambiguities.A speakers competence is stable while his performance is ofteninfluenced by psychological and social factors.So a speaker performance does notalways match his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to studycompetence,rather than performance.Chomsky?s competence-performance distinctionis not exactly the same as,though similar to,Saussures langue-parole distinction.Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community,while competenceis deemed as a property of mind of each individual.Saussure looks at language morefrom a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter dealswith his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.9.5 Etic vs.emicThese two terms are still very vague to me.After I read Ji Daohongs book,I canunderstand them better,but because they are vaguely mentioned in Hus book,it seemsvery difficult for me to understand them fully.-icywarmteaBeing etic means researchers9 making far too many,as well as behaviorally andinconsequential,differentiations,just as often the case with phonetics vs.phonemicsanalysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningfulvia final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal tothe investigators ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of(phon)etics vs(phon)emics,these terms wereintroduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike(1967)to denote the distinctionbetween the material and functional study of language:phonetics studies theacoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances,whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from thatuniversal catalogue from a functional aspect.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds.It includes three main areas:1.Articulatory phonetics-the study of the production of speech sounds2.Acoustic phonetics-the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced inspeech3.Auditory phonetics-the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech.Thespeech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts:the initiator of the air stream,theproducer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments,divergences,and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters,each letter must represent morethan one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet(IPA):the system of symbols for representing thepronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the InternationalPhonetic Association.The symbols consists of letters and diacritics.Some letters aretaken from the Roman alphabet,some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplaces to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of theair can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors.Themost important of these factors are:1.the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which theair passes through certain parts of the vocal tract(manner of articulation);2.where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstructionof the air(place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1.Stop/plosive:A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air streamfrom the lungs and then suddenly releasing it.In English,田 母 田 自 a 圆 y)o are stops and OS3 知 are nasal stops.2.Fricative:A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream fromthe lungs to escape with friction.This is caused by bringing the twoarticulators,e.g.the upper teeth and the lower lip,close together but not closesenough to stop the airstreams completely.In English,於 日。自 今 S3 密 侬.(S 由 少 南 are fricatives.3.(Median)approximant:An articulation in which one articulator is close toanother,but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that aturbulent airstream is produced.In English this class of sounds includes4.Lateral(approximant):A speech sound which is produced by partiallyblocking the airstream from the lungs,usually by the tongue,but letting itescape at one or both sides of the blockage.is the only lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill,tap or flap,and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1.Bilabial:A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2.Labiodental:A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upperfront teeth.3.Dental:A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and theupper front teeth.4.Alveolar:A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and thealveolar ridge.5.Postalveolar:A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the backof the alveolar ridge.6.Retroflex:A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curledback so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with theback of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7.Palatal:A speech sound which is made with the front of the longue and thehard palate.8.Velar:A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the softpalate.9.Uvular:A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and theuvula,the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end ofthe velum.10.Pharyngeal:A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and thewalls of the pharynx.11.Glottal:A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal foldspushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation(RP):The type of British Standard English pronunciationwhich has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation.It has often been popularly referred to as BBC English or Oxford English because itis widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by mostnewsreaders of the BBC network.A chart of English consonantsManner ofarticulationPlace of articu
