《英语语言学》复习重点中学教育中考_中学教育-中考.pdf

学习好资料 欢迎下载 英语语言学复习重点 Chapter I Invitation to linguistics 1.What is language and linguistics?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.To give the barest definition,language is a means of verbal communication.It is instrumental,social and conventional.Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or,alternatively,as the scientific study of language.It concerns with the systematic study of language or,a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works.2.What are the design features of language?The definition of these design features:arbitrariness,duality,creativity,and displacement Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.They are arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,etc.Arbitrariness refers to forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning Language is arbitrary.There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds,even with onomatopoeic words Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structure.The units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.Creativity refers to Words can be used in new ways to mean new things,and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before.Displacement refers to the fact that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present,real or imagined matters in the past,present,or future,or in far-away places.It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present(in time and space)at the moment of communication.3.Jakobson s classification of functions of language.1).Referential function 所指功能 2).Poetic function 诗学功能 3).Emotive function 感情功能 4).Conative function 意动功能 5).Phatic function 交感功能 6).Metalingual 元语言功能 Hu Zhuanglin classification of functions of language and use some examples to illustrate them.1).Informative function 信息功能 2).Interpersonal function 人际功能 3).Performative function 施为功能4).Emotive function 感情功能 5).Phatic communion 交感性谈话 6).Recreational function 娱乐性功能 7).Metalingual function 元语言功能 4.The definitions of important distinctions in lingustics:Who distinguished them?descriptive VS.presriptive;Descriptive(描写式):a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.eg:American dont say“Ill give you some color see see.”Prescriptive(规定式):a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,i.e.laying down rules for language use.eg:Dont say“Ill give you some color see see.”synchronic VS.diachronic;Synchronic study(共时性)-description of a language at some point of time Diachronic study(历时性)-description of a language through the course of its history(historical development of language over a period of time)langue&parole;Langue:(说话者的语言能力.)the linguistic competence of the speaker.学习好资料 欢迎下载 Parole:(语言的实际现象或语料.)the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).competence and performance.Competence:(一个语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解.)a language users underlying knowledge about the system of rules.Performance:(指在具体场景中语言的真实使用.)the actual use of language in concrete situations.The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N.Chomsky in the late 1950 s.Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speakers competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors.So a speakers performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.5.What is the major differences between Saussures distinction between langue and parole and Chomskys distinction between competence and performance?Saussures language is social product,a set of conversations for a speech community.Chomsky regards competence as property of the mind of each individual.Saussure studies language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky studies it more from a psychological point of view.Chapter 2 Speech sounds Phonetics 4.Basic information about the IPA International Phonetic Alphabet (Otto Jesperson France)IPA:the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996 and 2005.5.Three parameters to identify a consonant:place of articulation:place in the mouth where obstruction occurs manners of articulation:ways in which articulation can be accomplished state of vocal cords:voiced VS.voiceless 6.the categories of consonants according to the manner of articulation and the place of aritucatio 功能施为功能感情功能交感性谈话娱乐性功能元语言功能描写式规定式共时性历时性说话者的语言能力语言的实际现象或语料学习好资料欢迎下载一个语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解指在具体场景中语言的真实使用学习好法词词汇词封闭词开放词词类可变词不可变词屈折变化语法词词汇词连词介词冠词代词封闭词开放词词类学习好资料欢迎下载新造词混合词缩合词首字母缩略词逆构词类比造词借词外来词位置关系学习好资料欢迎下载可替代性关系上下义上义词下义词同义词成分分析蕴含预设不一致同义自相矛盾反常学习好资料欢迎下载晚星启明星概念映射从一个语域到另一个语域源域目标域概念映射从一个语域到另一个语域换喻转喻源域目标域学习好资料欢迎下载昨天上学习好资料 欢迎下载 7.English vowels can be divided into two large categories:Monophthongs or pure/single vowels 单元音 Diphthongs or gliding vowels 双元音 8.Four criteria(parameters)of vowel description 1.the height of tongue raising(high,mid,low);2.the position of the highest part of the tongue(front,central,back);3.the length or tenseness of the vowel(tense vs.lax or long vs.short),and 4.lip-rounding(rounded vs.unrounded).Phonology 9.definition:1)Co-articulation:Simultaneous/overlapping articulation because of the influence of the neighbor sound(s)2)broad/narrow transcription:When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription,it is called a broad transcription;The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.3)Phone:the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech.(in the mouth)4)Phoneme:a sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme.(in the mind)5)allophone phonic:variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.6)Minimal pairs:Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:1)different in meaning;2)only one phoneme different;3)the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.E.g.a minimal pair:pat-fat;lit-lip;phone-tone Minimal set:pat,mat,bat,fat,cat,hat,etc 7)Suprasegmental features:features that involve more than single sound segment,such as stress（重音），length（音程）,rhythm（节奏），tone（音调），intonation（语调）juncture（音渡）8)syllable:10.Exemplify the relationship between phone,phoneme and allophone.功能施为功能感情功能交感性谈话娱乐性功能元语言功能描写式规定式共时性历时性说话者的语言能力语言的实际现象或语料学习好资料欢迎下载一个语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解指在具体场景中语言的真实使用学习好法词词汇词封闭词开放词词类可变词不可变词屈折变化语法词词汇词连词介词冠词代词封闭词开放词词类学习好资料欢迎下载新造词混合词缩合词首字母缩略词逆构词类比造词借词外来词位置关系学习好资料欢迎下载可替代性关系上下义上义词下义词同义词成分分析蕴含预设不一致同义自相矛盾反常学习好资料欢迎下载晚星启明星概念映射从一个语域到另一个语域源域目标域概念映射从一个语域到另一个语域换喻转喻源域目标域学习好资料欢迎下载昨天上学习好资料 欢迎下载.Phone（音素):the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech.(in the mouth)i)phonetic unit ii)not necessarily distinctive of meaning iii)physical as heard or produced iv)marked with .Phoneme（音位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme.(in the mind)i)phonological unit ii)distinctive of meaning iii)abstract,not physical iv)marked with/.allophone(音位变体):phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.e.g.:pot,spot,cup:ph vs.p vs.p (unreleased)11.What are the differences between Phonetics and Phonology?Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced,transmitted and received.It is concerned with the actual physical articulation,transmission and perception of speech sounds.Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds.It is concerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in language Chapter 3 Morphology 12.Three senses of“word”(1)A physically definable unit:a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pause or blank.(2)Word both as a general term and as a specific term.(3)A grammatical unit.13.The classification of word.Using some examples to explain these classifications.Words can be classified in terms of:(1)Variable vs.invariable words(可变词/不可变词)(2)Grammatical words vs.lexical words (语法词/词汇词)(3)Closed-class words vs.open-class words(封闭词/开放词)(4)word class(词类)(1)Variable vs.invariable words(可变词/不可变词)the former refers to words having inflective changes（屈折变化）while the latter refers to words having no such endings.Variable words:follow;follows;following;followed Invariable words:since;when;seldom;through;hello(2)Grammatical words vs.lexical words(function words and content words.语法词/词汇词).The former refers to those words expressing grammatical meanings,such as conjunctions(连词),prepositions（介词）,articles(冠词),and pronouns（代词）;.the latter refers to words having lexical meanings,those which refer to substance,action etc.such as n.,v.,adj.,and adv.(3)Closed-class words vs.open-class words(封闭词/开放词).the former refers to words whose membership is fixed or limited;e.g.pron.,prep.,conj.,article.the latter of which the membership is infinite or unlimited.e.g.:n.,v.,adj.,adv.(4)word class(词类)14.definition:1)Morphology:Morphology is a branch of linguistics,which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.功能施为功能感情功能交感性谈话娱乐性功能元语言功能描写式规定式共时性历时性说话者的语言能力语言的实际现象或语料学习好资料欢迎下载一个语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解指在具体场景中语言的真实使用学习好法词词汇词封闭词开放词词类可变词不可变词屈折变化语法词词汇词连词介词冠词代词封闭词开放词词类学习好资料欢迎下载新造词混合词缩合词首字母缩略词逆构词类比造词借词外来词位置关系学习好资料欢迎下载可替代性关系上下义上义词下义词同义词成分分析蕴含预设不一致同义自相矛盾反常学习好资料欢迎下载晚星启明星概念映射从一个语域到另一个语域源域目标域概念映射从一个语域到另一个语域换喻转喻源域目标域学习好资料欢迎下载昨天上学习好资料 欢迎下载 2)Morpheme:the smallest unit of meaning,which can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free morphemes:morphemes which may constitute words by themselves Bound morphemes:morphemes which can not be used by themselves,but must be combined with other morphemes to form words Inflectional morpheme:a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number,tense,degree and case.Derivational morpheme:a kind of bound morphemes,added to existing forms to create new words.There are three kinds according to position:prefix,suffix and infix.3)Affix:is the term for the type of form that can be used to add to another morpheme(root or stem)to form word.It cant be used freely in sentence.prefix:change meaning eg:dis-;un-;mis-suffix:change part of speech eg:-ly;-ness;-tion infix:some languages also have infixes,affix morphemes that are inserted into root or stem morphemes to divide them into two parts.4)Inflection:the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as tense,number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.5)word-formation Compound:referring to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme,or the way to join two separate words to produce a new word.Derivation:the way to form words with a combination of roots and affixes.15.examples of Lexical change proper (1)Invention 新造词 Nylon (2)Blending 混合词 smoke+fog smog (3)Abbreviation 缩合词 TV television (4)Acronym 首字母缩略词 NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)(5)back-formation 逆构词 editor edit (6)analogical creation 类比造词 p76 (7)Borrowing 借词、外来词 Kong Fu Chapter 4 Syntax 16.Definition:Syntax:is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language,or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.paradigmatic Relations:Syntagmatic Relations:Endocentric Constructions:is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents,i.e.,a word or a group of words,which serves as a definable centre or head.Exocentric Constructions:refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole,that is,ther e is no definable“Centre”or“Head”inside the group Category:refers to the defining properties of these general units:Categories of the noun:number,gender,case and countability Categories of the verb:tense,aspect,voice 17.three kinds of syntactic relations:relations of position 位置关系 Positional relation,or WORD ORDER,refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.功能施为功能感情功能交感性谈话娱乐性功能元语言功能描写式规定式共时性历时性说话者的语言能力语言的实际现象或语料学习好资料欢迎下载一个语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解指在具体场景中语言的真实使用学习好法词词汇词封闭词开放词词类可变词不可变词屈折变化语法词词汇词连词介词冠词代词封闭词开放词词类学习好资料欢迎下载新造词混合词缩合词首字母缩略词逆构词类比造词借词外来词位置关系学习好资料欢迎下载可替代性关系上下义上义词下义词同义词成分分析蕴含预设不一致同义自相矛盾反常学习好资料欢迎下载晚星启明星概念映射从一个语域到另一个语域源域目标域概念映射从一个语域到另一个语域换喻转喻源域目标域学习好资料欢迎下载昨天上学习好资料 欢迎下载 relations of substitutability 可替代性关系 The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.relations of co-occurrence 同现关系 It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit,or require,the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.18.Immediate Constituent Analysis(IC Analysis)Immediate constituent analysis is a form of linguistic review that breaks down longer phrases or sentences into their constituent parts,usually into single words.This kind of analysis is sometimes abbreviated as IC analysis,and gets used extensively by a wide range of language experts.19.Endocentric constructions fall into two main types,depending on the relation between constituents:Coordination and subordination Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and,but and or.Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status,one being dependent upon the other,and usually a constituent of the other.20.Characteristics of subjects A)Word order:Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement B)Pro-forms(代词形式):The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject C)Agreement with the verb:In the simple present tense,an-s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular,but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb D)Content questions(实意问句):If the subject is replaced by a question word(who or what),the rest of the sentence remains unchanged E)Tag question(反意问句):A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement.It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject,and n