语言学(课堂PPT).ppt

Unit 9 Politeness in conversationApproaches to politeness9.1Clashes and tradeoffs between the maxims9.3PP:a reformulatuion9.49.2PP:the principle and its maxims12024/7/9Pre-Class Reading Differentapproachestothestudyofthelinguisticphenomenonarebrieflypresented.Oftwomostinfluentialmodelsofpoliteness,thePolitenessPrinciple(PPforshort)initsoldandnewformatsiselucidated,withtheothertheory(i.e.FaceTheory)tobedealtwithinthenextunit.22024/7/9ApproachestopolitenessA.Politeness as a real-word goal 礼貌-交际中的一种现实目的B.Politeness as deference:敬重C.Politeness as an utterance-level phenomenon 礼貌-一种话语表层现象 D.Politeness as a pragmatic phenomenon 礼貌-交际中的一种语用现象32A.Politeness as a real-world goal Viewed as a real-world goal,politeness is interpreted as a genuine desire to be nice or pleasant to others,or as the underlying motivation for an individuals linguistic behavior.Since it relates to the speskers personal motivation and psyshological state,it is of no relevance to linguists,pragmaticians included,because they have no direct access to what people think or feel.42024/7/9B.Politeness as deferencepolitenessdeferencerespect to those witha higher social status,greater age or the like52024/7/9C.Politeness as an utterance-lever phenomenon Along this line of research,scholars are concerned with the study of forms available for performing particularly speech acts politely and the perception of politeness by native or non-native speakers.It has been found,for example,that the more grammatically complex or elaborate the strategy is,the more polite it is rated to be.Such study is considered by Thoms to be more sociolinguistic than pragmatic in nature,because dynamic context fails to be brought into the focus of study.62024/7/9D.Politeness as pragmatic phenomenontwo influential modelsPoliteness PrincipleFace Theorytwo basic strategiesclarifyrapportthree rules of politeness72024/7/9Robin Tolmach LakoffA female professor of linguistics at the University of California,Berkrley.Establishing language and gender as an object of study in linguistics.Two basic strategies for communication:the transmission of information and rapport.82024/7/9dont impose/remain aloof 不要强求于人1 1.Come to post the letter on my desk this afternoon.2 2.You see,I have so many letters to post,and I have to deal with the fax first.3 3.Could you post the letter on my desk?4 4.Sorry,I have to ask you to help me post the letters on my desk.It can be applied to highly formal situations in which there is a significant difference in power and status between the interlocutors.92024/7/91.I wonder if it would help to get haircut.2.Maybe you should get a haircut.3.You must get a haircut.4.Get a haircut,please.Give the addressee his options给对方留有余地It is appropriate in less formal situations in which the interlocutors enjoy equal status and power,but are not familiar with each other.102024/7/9Equality or camaraderie:act as though you and the addressee were equal/make him feel good.增进相互间的友情It is applied to the interlocutors between close friends and lovers.112024/7/9（1）质量准则（quality maxim）也就是说要尽量说真话（2）数量准则（quantity maxim）A：使自己所说的话达到现时的交际目的所要求的详尽程度；B：不能使自己所说的话比要求的更详尽。（3）关联准则(relation maxim)要保证你说的每一句都和目前所进行的谈话是关联的 （4）方式准则（避免赘述）(manner maxim)A：说话要清晰明了，有所指；B:不要使自己的谈话含糊不清，模棱两可，从而难于理解。合作原则和它的四个准则12A：我这个裙子怎么样？B：嗯，颜色挺好的。Why not choose to be direct in saying what they mean?13Why not choose to be direct in saying what they mean?While Grices Cooperative Principle as well as its maxims helps to deduce what speakers actually mean by what they say,it fails to explain,among other things,why they choose not to be direct in saying what they mean.14According to Geoffrrey Leech,communicators generally observe some rules of good behavior which he terms the Politeness Principle.The principle can explain why people are sometimes indirect in conveying what they mean.15 从以上分析，我们可以推导出另外一个问题，那就是，“为什么人们总是用间接的方式来表达自己的真实意图呢？”格赖斯主义有它的缺陷，Grice提出了合作原则并指出对合作原则的违反就产生了会话含义，但是Grice并没有解释清楚为什么人们要违反合作原则。后来Leech从修辞和语义的角度提出了“礼貌原则”，作为对Grice合作原则的补充，Leech认为，在语言交际中，人们为了礼貌才违反了合作原则，Leech的礼貌原则有以下几条：16Leech礼貌原则的六个次准则礼貌原则的六个次准则（从（从“惠惠”和和“损损”的角度）的角度）1得体准则得体准则tact maxim使他人受损最小；使他人受惠最使他人受损最小；使他人受惠最大。大。2慷慨准则慷慨准则Generosity maxim使自身受惠最小；使自身受损最使自身受惠最小；使自身受损最大。大。3赞誉准则赞誉准则approbation maxim尽量少贬低别人；尽量多赞誉别尽量少贬低别人；尽量多赞誉别人。人。4谦虚准则谦虚准则modest maxim尽量少赞誉自己；尽量多贬低自尽量少赞誉自己；尽量多贬低自己。己。5一致准则一致准则agreement maxim尽量减少双方的分歧；尽量减少双方的分歧；尽量增加尽量增加双方的一致。双方的一致。6同情准则同情准则sympathy maxim尽量减少对别人的反感；尽量减少对别人的反感；尽量增尽量增大对别人的同情。大对别人的同情。17Leech礼貌原则的六个次准则礼貌原则的六个次准则（从（从“惠惠”和和“损损”的角度）的角度）1得体准则得体准则tact maxim利益分配利益分配2慷慨准则慷慨准则Generosity maxim3赞誉准则赞誉准则approbation maxim评价评价4谦虚准则谦虚准则modest maxim5一致准则一致准则agreement maxim对待他人的态度对待他人的态度6同情准则同情准则sympathy maxim182.LeechsapproachtopolitenessPolitenessincommunicationrequirespeopletoadoptstrategiesof(a)maximize(otherthingsbeingequal)theexpressionofpolitebeliefs;(b)minimize(otherthingbeingequal)theexpressionofimpolitebeliefs.19Leech:MAXIMSOFPOLITENESS(i)Tactmaxim(策略准则策略准则,得体准则得体准则)(a)Minimizecosttoother;使他人受使他人受损损最小最小Cloudyougivemeasheetofpaper?(b)maximizebenefittoother;使他人受使他人受惠惠最大最大Youcanusemycarwheneveryouneedit?20 April 20Dear Mike,How are you?Ive got two tickets to a concert given by a famous pop band for his Friday evening.Guess which band?Its Beyond!I know you have long been a fan of the band.So I guess you would certainly like to come with me.By the way,the concert will start at six p.m.and last two hours.Give me a call when you receive this note.Affectionately yours,Kate In the letter the writer maximizes the benefit to others(tact maxim).使他人受惠最大21Leech:MAXIMSOFPOLITENESS(ii)Generositymaxim(宽宏准则，慷慨准则宽宏准则，慷慨准则)(a)Minimizethebenefittoself;使自身受使自身受益益最小最小MayIjusthavealook?(b)maximizethecosttoself;使自身受使自身受损损最大最大Iwillmakeeveryefforttodothejobwell.22A:Oh,my bag is so heavy!B:Do you need any help?C:Let me help you.maximizethecosttoself使自身受损最大使自身受损最大GenerositymaximGenerositymaximGenerositymaximGenerositymaxim(宽宏准则，慷慨准则宽宏准则，慷慨准则宽宏准则，慷慨准则宽宏准则，慷慨准则)23MAXIMSOFPOLITENESS(iii)Approbation(orflattery)maxim赞扬准则赞扬准则(a)Minimizedispraiseofothers;尽量缩小对他人的贬损尽量缩小对他人的贬损Youcloudbeabitmorecareful.(b)Maximizepraiseofothers.尽量夸大对他人的赞扬尽量夸大对他人的赞扬Whatamarvelousmealyoucooked!24A：今天的饭菜怎么样？B：这样说吧，你太太是世界上最好的厨师。（实际上饭菜一般）在这个会话中，B违反了合作原则中的质量准则，但遵守了礼貌原则中的赞扬原则。Maximizepraiseofothers.尽量夸大对他人的赞扬尽量夸大对他人的赞扬25 Wife:Gosh,Ive been so careless.Husband1:Yes,havent you?Husband2:Well,were humans.Approbation MaximMinimize dispraise of other尽量少贬低别人26A:What do you think of my shoes?B1:They are horrible.B2:Well,it is,ur,not my favorite.Approbation MaximMinimize dispraise of other尽量少贬低别人27Modesty Maxim(Modesty Maxim(谦逊原则谦逊原则）a.Minimize praise of self 少赞誉自己少赞誉自己b.Maximize dispraise of self 多贬低自己多贬低自己e.g.1.Please accept this small gift of mine.贬低自己的礼物。贬低自己的礼物。2.欢迎观临欢迎观临寒舍寒舍282家里有客人的时候，女儿很自觉的去洗碗了。家里有客人的时候，女儿很自觉的去洗碗了。客人：你家小倩真懂事。客人：你家小倩真懂事。母亲：哪有哪有，她平时很懒的，做事马虎，学习又差，母亲：哪有哪有，她平时很懒的，做事马虎，学习又差，真让人不省心。不像你家的小玲，每次考试都第一。真让人不省心。不像你家的小玲，每次考试都第一。客人：靠运气啦。客人：靠运气啦。292024/7/9古代人的称呼的谦逊古代人的称呼的谦逊令尊令尊-家父家父令堂令堂-家母家母令郎令郎-犬子犬子令千金令千金-犬女犬女令夫人令夫人-贱内贱内302024/7/9谦逊原则的作用“夫礼者，自卑而尊人。夫礼者，自卑而尊人。”贬损自己，也是对他人的尊敬。贬损自己，也是对他人的尊敬。满招损，谦受益。满招损，谦受益。312024/7/9Agreement Maxim Agreement Maxim（一致原则）（一致原则）a.minimize disagreement between self and other 尽量减少双方之间的分歧尽量减少双方之间的分歧 b.maximize agreement between self and other 尽量增加双方的一致尽量增加双方的一致作用：作用：减少双方的不同之处，减少双方的不同之处，满足对方的要求，赞同对方，满足对方的要求，赞同对方，使两人的关系更和谐，以使对话的进行。使两人的关系更和谐，以使对话的进行。322024/7/9for example1.A:You look nice today.B:Thank you.2.A:你今天真漂亮。你今天真漂亮。B:难道我以前很丑吗？难道我以前很丑吗？C:.332024/7/9A:Your wife is very beautiful.B:Where,where.A:The eyes are beautiful,the nose is beautiful,the mouth is beautiful.Q:Which maxim does A or B obeys?Chinese:modesty maximforeigner:Agreement maxim342024/7/9Sympaphy Maxim Sympaphy Maxim(同情原则）同情原则）a.Minimize antipaphy between self and other 减少对别人的厌恶感减少对别人的厌恶感b.maximize sympaphy between self and other 增加对别人的同情感增加对别人的同情感352024/7/9A:你脸色不大好，是不是不舒服呀？你脸色不大好，是不是不舒服呀？B:是呀，感冒了，头晕眼花流鼻涕是呀，感冒了，头晕眼花流鼻涕.A:那看医生了没那看医生了没.要注意休息，多喝点水要注意休息，多喝点水.C:什么？真感冒了，被我猜中了吧，哈哈哈什么？真感冒了，被我猜中了吧，哈哈哈.多关心别人，为别人着想，不要把自己的快乐多关心别人，为别人着想，不要把自己的快乐建立在别人的痛苦之上，更不要落井下石。建立在别人的痛苦之上，更不要落井下石。362024/7/9six maxim of Leechs Politness Principle1.Tact Maxim2.Generosity Maxim3.Approbation Maxim4.Modesty Maxim5.Agreement Maxim6.Sympathy Maxim利益分配利益分配评价评价对待他人的态度对待他人的态度372024/7/9Politeness tends to favor other than self.a-sub-maxim is more important than b-sub-maxim.The avoidance of discord is more need than the creation on concord.减少双方的不一致比想办法增加双方的一致更常用。减少双方的不一致比想办法增加双方的一致更常用。382024/7/9linguistic communication goals:illocutionary goalssocial goalsinterminate,primary goalsgettingsomeonetodosthlong-term,secondary goalsmaintainingfriendlyrelationswithothers392024/7/9illocutionary goals social goals makeamakeamakeamakeacomplimentcomplimentcomplimentcomplimentmakeamakeamakeamakearefusalrefusalrefusalrefusalsupposupposupposupport rt rt rtcompetecompetecompetecompetewithwithwithwith402024/7/9conpetitive function（竞争功能）convivial function（促谐功能）collaborate function（协作功能）conflictive function （冲突功能）412024/7/9Conpetitive functions（竞争功能）Theillocutionarygoalcompeteswiththesocialgoal ordering demanding begging422024/7/9LadyCatherine:Mr Collins,you cant sit next to your wife.Move.Over there.432024/7/9 LadyCatherine:Come.Miss Bennit,and play for us.ElizabethBennet:No,I beg you.LadyCatherine:For music is my delight.442024/7/9Convivial functions(促谐功能)Theillocutionarygoalcoincideswiththesocialgoal offering inviting thanking greeting congraturating452024/7/9 Darcy:My sister,Miss Georgiana.Georgiana:My brother has told me so much about you.I feel as if we are friends already.Elizabeth:Thank you.What a beautiful pianoforte!Georgiana:My brother gave it to me.462024/7/9Collaborative functions(协作功能)Theillocutionarygoalisindifferenttothesocialgoalassertingreportingannouncinginstructing472024/7/9Elizebeth:If every man does not end the evening in love with you,then Im no judge of beauty.Jane:Or men.482024/7/9Conflictive functions(冲突功能)Theillocutionarygoalconflictswiththesocialgoal accusing cursing threatening reprimanding492024/7/9Lady Catherine:You selfish gril!This union has been planned since their infancy.Do you think it can be prevented by a woman of inferior birth?502024/7/9Leech的分类言外行为目标和礼貌的关系例子竞争功能行为和礼貌竞争请求、命令促谐功能本质上礼貌建议、忠告协作功能无关联声言、宣布冲突功能不可能礼貌威胁、责骂512024/7/9Clashes and tradeoffs between the maxims52Sometimes,the adherence to one maxim of the PP may run counter to that of another.Mary:What a nice jumper youre wearing!John1:Oh,its a very old one.John2:Yes,its beautiful,isnt it?53张：你今晚就在我们家吃顿便饭吧。陈：不了，不了，太麻烦了。张：麻烦什么？随便几个菜，很快的。陈：我还是回去吧，反正也还不饿。以后 再来打扰你们。张：哎呀，都在这儿了。反正我们也要吃的，就随便吃点吧。陈：那-那-，我就不客气了。54When maxims of the CP and the PP come into conflict,the latter generally gains more conciderationConflics may also arise between a certain maxim of the Politeness Principle and one maxim of the Cooperative Principle.55A:Well all miss Bill and Jack,wont we?B:Well,well all miss Bill.A:.John has just borrowed your bike.B；Well,I like that.A:How do you like my painting?B:I dont have an eye for beauty,Im afraid.恪守了礼貌原则的一致准则一致准则，违反了合作原则中的量准则量准则。恪守了礼貌原则的慷慨准则慷慨准则，违反了合作原则中的质准则质准则。恪守了礼貌原则的一致准则一致准则，违反了合作原则中的关系准则关系准则。56Peter:You did a good job.Mike;Thank you!外国客人：你的工作做得很好。中国服务员：不，我的工作还有许多不足。Different cultures may prioritize different maxim in this regard.57有人对一位学习好的孩子的父母说：“你的孩子好争气呀！”对于这样的夸奖，孩子的父母则回答：“哪里，一般般吧。”完后，还嘱咐孩子：“别骄傲！谦虚使人进步，骄傲使人落后。”在同样的情况下，英美父母则会自豪地回答：“是的，他很棒！他是我们的骄傲！”58PP：areformulationGrandStrategyofPoliteness(GSP):Inordertobepolite,SexpressesorimpliesmeaningswhichassociateahighvaluewithwhatpertainstoO(O=otherperson(s),mainlytheaddressee)orassociatealowvaluewithwhatpertainstoS（S=self,speaker).GSPassuper-maximorsuper-constrain592Sub-constrains(asopposedtomaxims)withvariableconstrainingpowerE:PlaceahighvalueonOsfeelings;PlacealowvalueonSsfeelingsA:PlaceahighvalueonOswants;placealowvalueonSswantsB:PlaceahighvalueonOsqualitiesplacealowvalueonSsqualitiesC:PlaceahighvalueonSsobligationtoO;PlacealowvalueonOsobligationtoSD:PlaceahighvalueonOsopinions;PlacealowonSsopinions602024/7/9eg:Youmustcomeandstaywithusnexttime.Iwonttake“no”forananswer!你下次一定来啊。不准说不啊！你下次一定来啊。不准说不啊！Comeon!Sitdownandhaveanicecupofcoffee.来，来，来，喝杯茶！来，来，来，喝杯茶！A:PlaceahighvalueonOswants(generosity);placealowvalueonSswants(tact)Noyoudont!Illpayforthis.Iinsist.别，别，别，这回我买单！别和我抢！别，别，别，这回我买单！别和我抢！612024/7/9eg:Theyaresodelicious!Yourcuisineisasgoodasthatofachefatanybigrestaurant!B：PlaceahighvalueonOsqualities(approbation);placealowvalueonSsqualities(modesty)A:Imsodumb.Icantbelieveithastakenmesolongtofigureoutsuchasimplequestion!B:Comeon!Ifyouweredumb,therewouldntexistanysmartguyintheworld!622024/7/9Eg:Im(terribly)sorry.Pleaseexcuseme.ImafraidIllhavetoleaveearly.C:PlaceahighvalueonSsobligationtoO;PlacealowvalueonOsobligationtoS632024/7/9D:PlaceahighvalueonOsopinions(agreement);PlacealowonSsopinionseg:A:Itsabeautifulview,isntit?B:Yeah,absolutelygorgeous.642024/7/9E:PlaceahighvalueonOsfeelings(sympathy);PlacealowvalueonSsfeelingseg:Warmestcongratulations!IwassoterriblysorrytohearaboutA:Hi,howareyou?B:Oh,fine.Actuallythough652024/7/9TheseconstrainsabovearesimplythemostimportantmanifestationsoftheGSPandtheremaybeothers.Moreover,heconstrainstowardstheendofthelistarelesspowerfulthanthoseatthethoseatthetop.662024/7/9Question:ThePolitenessPrincipleisusefulinexplainingmanypragmaticphenomenaliketheindirectnessofspeech,theasymmetry（不对等）（不对等）ofpoliteness,battlesforpoliteness,andsoon.Inaddition,itcanbeinvokedtointerpretsomeellipticalconstructions(省略结构省略结构).Comparethefollowingutterances.a.(Good)luck!b.Badluck!672024/7/9(1)a.Iwishyougoodluck!b.Itisreallybadluckforme!(2)Whenpeopleexpresssomething,theytendtoplaceahighvalueonothersandplacealowvalueonthemselves.Therefore,whenthespeakersaysluckorgoodluck,heisalmostlikelyexpressingagoodwishtoothersandwhenhesaysbadluck,heisexpressinghisdisappointmentorsadness.682024/7/9PositivepolitenessNegativepolitenessVS692024/7/9Positivepolitenessstrategiesseektominimizethethreattothehearerspositiveface.Theyareusedtomakethehearerfeelgoodabouthimself,hisinterestsorpossessions,andaremostusuallyusedinsituationswheretheaudienceknowseachotherfairlywell.Positivepoliteness702024/7/9Inadditiontohedgingandattemptstoavoidconflict,somestrategiesofpositivepolitenessincludestatementsoffriendship,solidarity,compliments,andthefollowingexamplesfromBrownandLevinson:AttendtoHsinterests,needs,wantsYoulooksad.CanIdoanything?Usesolidarityin-groupidentitymarkersHey,mate,canyoulendmeadollar?712024/7/9Includebothspeaker(S)andhearer(H)inactivityIfwehelpeachother,Iguess,wellbothsinkorswiminthiscourse.OfferorpromiseIfyouwashthedishes,Illvacuumthefloor.Illjustcomealong,ifyoudontmind.Beoptimistic722024/7/9ExaggerateinterestinHandhisinterestsWow,thatsawhopper!JokeYes,itsratherlong;notshortcertainly.AvoidDisagreementThatsanicehaircutyougot;wheredidyougetit?732024/7/9Negativepolitenessstrategiesareorientedtowardsthehearersnegativefaceandemphasizeavoidanceofimpositiononthehearer.Thesestrategiespresumethatthespeakerwillbeimposingonthelistenerandthereisahigherpotentialforawkwardnessorembarrassmentthaninbaldonrecordstrategiesandpositivepolitenessstrategies.Neg