换言之-翻译教程-第四章--笔记(共4页).doc

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1、精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上Chapter 4 Grammatical equivalence Grammar is the set of rules which determine the way in which units such as words and phrases can be combined in a language and the kind of information which has to be made regularly explicit in utterances.4.1. Grammatical VS lexical categoriesGrammar is

2、 organized along two main dimensions: (1) morphology (2) syntax.Morphology covers the structure of words, the way in which the form of a word changes to indicate specific contrasts in the grammatical system. The morphological structure of a language determines the basic information which must be exp

3、ressed in that language.Syntax covers the grammatical structure of groups, clauses, and sentences. 两者的不同点： Choices in language can be expressed grammatically or lexically. Choices made form closed systems are grammatical; those made from open-ended sets of items or expressions are lexical. The most

4、important difference between grammatical and lexical choices is that grammatical choices are largely obligatory while lexical choices are largely optional. The same is not true in Chinese or Japanese, where number is a lexical rather than a grammatical category. Grammatical structure also differs fr

5、om lexical structure in that it is more resistant to change. Grammatical changes occurs cover a much longer time scale that lexical change. Grammatical rules are also more resistant to manipulate by speakers. 4.2. The diversity of grammatical categories across languages A number of grammatical categ

6、ories in many languages would hardly ever be expressed even by lexical means. It is impossible to say anything to anyone without indicating the relative degree of repect to which the speaker and hearer are entitled in the community. Differences in the grammatical structures of the source and target

7、languages often result in some change in the information content of the message during the process of translation. This change may take the form of adding to the target text information which is not expressed in the source text. The change in the information content of the message may be in the form

8、 of omitting information specified in the source text. If the target language lacks a grammatical category which exists in the source language, the information expressed by that category may have to be ignored. The fact that lexical choices are optional gives them more weight than grammatical choice

9、s.4.2.1. Number An translator working from a language which has number of distinctions into a language with no category of number has two main options: (1) omit the relevant information (2）encode this information lexically. Information on number can be encoded lexically.4.2.2. Gender Gender is a gra

10、mmatical distinction according to which a noun or pronoun is classified as either masculine or feminine in some languages. In most languages that have a gender category, the masculine term is usually the dominant or unmarked term. Gender distinctions in the case of human referents are not arbitrary,

11、 and that is why Lyons suggests that what is important in communication is the pronominal function of gender rather than the category of gender in general. The pronominal function of gender reflects a genuine, non-arbitrary distinction between male and female.4.2.3. Person The category of person ref

12、ers to the notion of participant roles. In most languages, participant roles are systematically defined through a closed system of pronouns which may be organized along a variety of dimensions. The most common distinction is that between first person, second person and third person. In addition to t

13、he main distinction based on participant roles, the person system may be organized along a variety of other dimensions such as a gender or number dimension. A large number of modern European languages, not including English, have a formality or politeness dimension in their person system. All langua

14、ges have modes of address which can be used to express familiarity or deference in a similar way. The important thing is that we learn to appreciate the influence that the grammatical system of a language has on the way events are presented in that language. The familiarity or deference dimension in

15、 the pronoun system is among the most fascinating aspects of grammar and the most problematic in translation. It reflects the tenor of discourse and can convey a whole range or rather subtle meanings.4.2.4. Tense and aspect The form of the verb in languages which have these categories usually indica

16、tes two types of information: time relations and aspectual differences. Time relations have to do with locating an event in time. The usual distinction is between past. Present and future. Aspectual differences have to do with the temporal distribution of an event, for instance its completion or non

17、-completion, continuation or momentariness. Although the main use of the grammatical categories of tense and aspect is to indicate time and aspectual relations, they do not necessarily perform the same function in all languages. Tense and aspect distinctions may also take an additional, more subtle

18、meanings in discourse.4.2.5. Voice Voice is a grammatical category which defines the relationship between a verb and its subject. In active clauses, the subject is the agent responsible for performing the action. In passive clauses, the subject is the affected entity, and the agent may or may not be

19、 specified, depending on the structures available in each languages. The form of the verb changes in a passive structure to indicate that its subject is the affected entity rather than the agent. Chinese verbs having no voice refers to the fact that the form of the verb in Chinese does not change to

20、 indicate its relationship with the subject of the clause. Languages which have a category of voice do not always use the passive with the same frequency. The frequency of use of the passive in languages which have a category of voice usually expresses a stylistic choice and , in some registers, may

21、 be a question of pure convention. Rendering a passive structure by an active structure, or conventionally an active structure by a passive structure in translation can affect the amount of information given in the clause, the linear arrangement of semantic elements such as agent and affected entity

22、, and the focus of the message. The main function of the passive in English and in a number of other languages is to avoid specifying the agent and to give an impression of objectivity. In some languages, notably Japanese, Chinese, Vietnamese, and Thai, the main function of the passive, or passive-l

23、ike structure as in the case of Chinese, is to express diversity The regular association of passive structures with adversity in certain languages means that the passive can often carry connotations of unpleasantness even when the event depicted in not normally seen as unpleasant. Chinese translator

24、s are sensitive to the difference in function of the passive in English and in their target languages and generally tend to replace a large number of English passive structures with active structures in their target texts in order to avoid negative connotations. The most important things bears in mi

25、nd as far as voice is concerned are the frequency of use of active, passive and similar structures in the source and target languages, their respective stylistic value in different text types, and -most important of all-the functions of the passive and similar structures in each language. It is alwa

26、ys the function of a category rather than the form it takes that is of paramount importance in translation.使翻译产生难度的因素： The expression of modal meaning Mood, direct and indirect speech, causativity, and many others.4.3. A brief note on word order The syntactic structure of a language imposes restrict

27、ions on the way messages may be organized in that language. Some languages have case inflections which indicate the relationship between the elements in a clause. Languages which have elaborate systems of case inflections tend to have fewer restrictions on word order than languages like English whic

28、h have very few case inflections. Word order is extremely important in translation because it plays a major role in maintaining a coherent point of view and in orienting messages at text level.4.4. Introducing text As part of a language system , lexical items and grammatical structures have a meanin

29、g potential, this meaning potential is only realized in communicative events, that is , in text. Text is defined here as verbal record of a communicative event; it is an instance of language in use rather than languages as an abstract system of meaning and relations.4.4.1. Text VS non-text As transl

30、ators, we have to operate with lexical items and grammatical structures at various stages of the translation process. A good translator does not begin to translate until she or he has read the text at least once and got a gist of the overall message Once the source text is understood, the translator

31、 then has to tackle the task of producing a target version which can be accepted as a text in its own right The phraseology and the collocational and grammatical patterning of the target version must conform to the target-language norms, but even then the translation may still sound foreign or clums

32、y. Worse still, it may not even make sense to the target reader. Acceptable collocational patterns and grammatical structures can only enhance the readability of individual sentences, but they do not in themselves ensure that sentences and paragraphs add up to a readable or coherent text. A text has

33、 features of organization which distinguish it from non-text, that is from a random collection of sentences. The ultimate aim of a translator, in most cases, is to achieve a measure of equivalence at text level, rather than at word or phrase level. It is much more straightforwatd to decide what cons

34、titutes a grammatical or acceptable sentence than what constitutes a grammatical or acceptable sentence sequence. Paragraph. Text, or discourse.4.4.2. Features of text organization we identify a stretch of language as a text partly because it is presented to us as a text, and we therefore do our utm

35、ost to make sense of it as a unit, partly because we perceive connections within and among its sentences. These connections are of several kinds: There are connections which are established through the arrangement of information within each clause and the way this relates to the arrangement of infor

36、mation in preceding and following clauses and sentences; these contribute mainly to topic development and maintenance through thematic and information structures(chapter 5). There are surface connections which establish interrelationships between persons and events; these allow us to trace participa

37、nts in a text and to interpret the way in which different parts of the text relate to each other(cohesion, chapter 6) There are underlying semantic connections which allow us to make sense of a text as a unit of meaning; there are dealt with under the heading of coherence and implicature( Chapter7)

38、Another important feature of text organization derives from the overlapping notions of genre and text type. Both relate to the way in which textual material is packaged by the writer along patterns familiar to the reader. Text has been classified into two main ways to capture this type of packaging:

39、(1) the first is based on the contexts in which texts occur and results in institutionalized labels such as journal articlescience textbooknewspaper edirotialtravel brochure. This classification abstracts across contexts.(2) the second is a more subjective, less institutionalized and therefore much vaguer classification which does not normally apply to a whole text but rather to parts of it. This classification abstracts across such factors as the nature of the messages involved or the addresser or addressee relationship. 专心-专注-专业