英语语言学笔记(共16页).doc

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1、精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上第一章语文课本中的文章都是精选的比较优秀的文章,还有不少名家名篇。如果有选择循序渐进地让学生背诵一些优秀篇目、精彩段落,对提高学生的水平会大有裨益。现在,不少语文教师在分析课文时,把文章解体的支离破碎,总在文章的技巧方面下功夫。结果教师费劲,学生头疼。分析完之后,学生收效甚微,没过几天便忘的一干二净。造成这种事倍功半的尴尬局面的关键就是对文章读的不熟。常言道“书读百遍,其义自见”,如果有目的、有计划地引导学生反复阅读课文,或细读、默读、跳读,或听读、范读、轮读、分角色朗读,学生便可以在读中自然领悟文章的思想内容和写作技巧,可以在读中自然加强语感,增强语言的感受力。久而

2、久之,这种思想内容、写作技巧和语感就会自然渗透到学生的语言意识之中,就会在写作中自觉不自觉地加以运用、创造和发展。 1.What is language?课本、报刊杂志中的成语、名言警句等俯首皆是,但学生写作文运用到文章中的甚少,即使运用也很难做到恰如其分。为什么?还是没有彻底“记死”的缘故。要解决这个问题,方法很简单,每天花3-5分钟左右的时间记一条成语、一则名言警句即可。可以写在后黑板的“积累专栏”上每日一换,可以在每天课前的3分钟让学生轮流讲解,也可让学生个人搜集,每天往笔记本上抄写,教师定期检查等等。这样,一年就可记300多条成语、300多则名言警句,日积月累,终究会成为一笔不小的财富

3、。这些成语典故“贮藏”在学生脑中,自然会出口成章,写作时便会随心所欲地“提取”出来,使文章增色添辉。 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication其实,任何一门学科都离不开死记硬背,关键是记忆有技巧,“死记”之后会“活用”。不记住那些基础知识,怎么会向高层次进军?尤其是语文学科涉猎的范围很广,要真正提高学生的写作水平,单靠分析文章的写作技巧是远远不够的,必须从基础知识抓起,每天挤一点时间让学生“死记”名篇佳句、名言警句,以及丰富的词语、新颖的材料等。这样,就会在有限的时间、空间里给学生的

4、脑海里注入无限的内容。日积月累,积少成多,从而收到水滴石穿,绳锯木断的功效。 2.Design features of languageArbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)Duality（二层性）:The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are com

5、posed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.Productivity/creativity(创造性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their use

6、rs to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication. (p7)3.Functions of language Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational) Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex, languag

7、e, background, accent, status) Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare). Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker. Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to

8、 establish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. (health, weather) Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.4. What is linguistics?Linguistics i

9、s generally defined as the scientific study of language.5. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive & prescriptiveSynchronic & diachronicLangue & parole Competence & performance6.Descriptive(描写/述性)describe and analyze linguistic facts or the language people actually use (modern linguistic)Pr

10、escriptive(规定性)lay down rules for “correct and standard” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar: “never use a double negative”)7.Synchronic study (共时)description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study (历时) description of a language as it changes

11、 through time (historical development of language over a period of time) 第四章1What is Syntax （句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences.句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2Four Approaches :The traditional approach传统语言观 (Parts of speech、Syntactic Fu

12、nction不考、Category范畴、Concord and government一致关系和支配关系)、The structural approach结构语言观、The generative approach、The functional approach功能语言观3The traditional grammar regards sentences as a sequence of words , so it pays great attention to the study of words, such as the classification of words in terms of

13、parts of speech, the identification of function of words in terms of subject, predicate , etc.4. Parts of speechTraditional grammar defines 8 parts of speech: nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.5The term Category范畴 in some approaches refers to w

14、ord classes and functions in its narrow sense,范畴这一术语狭义上是指词类和功能 eg. Noun, Verb, Subject, Predicate. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun名词的范畴, include number, gender, case and countability（case）; the categories of the verb动词的范畴: te

15、nse, aspect, voice, etc.6Number is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun名词和不可数名词.Two terms of number in nouns: singular and plural单数和复数Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs7. Gender is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun.In English, the gender distinctions

16、are on the whole natural, determined by the biological gender of the creature.8. Case is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.在词类分析中，格范畴用来辨别句子中词之间的句法关系In English, pronouns have three cases of nominative主格, accusative受格, and genitive与

17、格. Nouns have two of general and genitive所有格In English, the case of noun is realised in three channels:(a) inflection(b) following a preposition(c) word order9. Tense时态: the absolute location of an event or action on time. It is marked by an inflection of the verb. As a result, there are only two te

18、nses recognized now: past and present.Since the future time does not involve any inflection of the verb, we do not refer to a “future tense”, even though in many different ways we can talk about the future.10. Aspect体: It has nothing with time, and it tells us whether an action is ongoing or complet

19、ed.Perfective（完成体） and Imperfective（进行体）Perfective and Progressive (in English)11. Voice语态: describe the relationship between verb and subject Passive被动语态 and active主动语态12. Concord and government Concord (一致关系) refers to agreement between words, especially between a verband the subject of a sentence

20、.Government (支配关系) is a type of grammatical relationship between two or more elements in a sentence.In traditional grammar, the term government has typically been used to refer to the relationship between verbs and nouns or between prepositions and nouns.13.The Structural Approach ，由Ferdinand de Sau

21、ssure提出14.Syntactic Relations：Positional relations位置关系、Relations of substitutability替代关系、Relations of co-occurrence同现关系15.Immediate constituent (直接成分) is any meaningful constituent at the first step in an analysis.16.An endocentric construction (向心结构) is a construction that contains: 1) a head, whic

22、h is the single obligatory element in the construction; 2) one or more optional elements subordinate to the head. 17.theme (主位) refers to the known information which is not new to the reader or listenerRheme (述位) refers to the information that is new. The new information is what is to be transmitted

23、 to the reader or listenerThe linguists of the Prague school believed that sentence may be analyzed from the functional side as well as the grammaticalside.subject, predicate (grammatical side)theme, rheme (functional side) 第五章1. What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phra

24、ses and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2Geoffrey Leech利奇Seven types of meaning7种意义类型:Conceptual meaning概念意义Connotative meaning内涵意义Social meaning社会意义Affective meaning 感情意义 Associative Meaning联想意义（）Reflected meaning反射意义Collocative meaning搭配意义Thematic meaning主位意义3.Conceptual meaning (概念意义) is also calle

25、d “denotative”（外延义）and it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary.4.Associative meaning (联想意义) is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the wordAssociative

26、meaning is the meaning which a word suggests or implies.5.Thematic meaning (主位意义) is “what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.”它是由词序和词语重音所决定的6. The Referential Theory（指称理论）： The Referential TheoryThe Semantic Triangle Sense and Reference7.The

27、referential theory 指称理论 is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论8. The semantic triangle语意三角 is the indirectrelation between a word and a thing it refers to and it is mediated by concept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的9.Sense (涵义)

28、 is a set of properties possessed by a name.10.Reference (指称) is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object.11. The sense of an expression is the thought it expresses, while its reference is the object it representsEvery word has a sense, but not every word h

29、as a reference.12. Sense Relations涵义关系Synonymy（同义关系）Antonymy（反义关系） （Gradable、Complementary、Converse）Hyponymy（上下义关系）13.But total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style, connotations and dialect.14.Gradable antonymy (等级反义关系) 、Complementary antonymy (互补反义关系)、Converse antonymy (反向反义关系)15. Componenti

30、al analysis is an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaning components.16. Sentence Meaning17. Sense relations between sentences Synonymity (同义) a. He was a bachelor all his life. b. He never married all his boy.Sentences a and b are in a synonymous relationship: t

31、he truth of one sentence necessarily implies the truth of another sentence Inconsistency (矛盾) a. Elizabeth II is Queen of England. b. Elizabeth II is a man.Sentences a and b are in a relationship of contradiction: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the falseness of another sentence. Entai

32、lment (蕴涵) a. He married a blonde heiress. b. He married a blonde.Entailment refers to a kind of meaning inclusion. If x entails y, the meaning of x is included in y. Presupposition (前提预设)It is what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the message already knows.Contradiction (矛盾)Semantic

33、 anomaly (语义反常)18. An integrated theoryCompositionality(组合性原则)：the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constituent words and the way they are combined.This semantic theory is the integration of syntax and semanticsTheir basic idea is that a semantic theory consists of two parts: a di

34、ctionary and a set of projection rulesThe dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of wordsThe projection rules are responsible for combining the meanings of words together.19.Logical semantics（逻辑语义学）A proposition(命题) is what is to be expressed by a declarative sen

35、tence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.It is the basic meaning which a sentence express.A very important property of the proposition is that it has a truth value.第七章1.Language and Culture：Sapir-Whorf HypothesisEvidence Given by Whorf Implication of SWH Relation between Language and

36、Culture2SHW can be broken down into two basic principles:Linguistic determinism (语言决定论): the language we use determines the way we view about the world around us.Language may determine our thinking patterns. (语言决定思维) P1623. Relation between Language and CultureLanguage influences thought and culture

37、，Language varies in categories and concepts, thus reflecting the different world views of different language users, that is, culture and thought are conditioned by languageCulture influences language，Every language is a part of a culture. As such, it can not but serve and reflect cultural needs. Whe

38、n a culture experience radical changes, the vocabulary also undergoes corresponding alterations4.Language and SocietyRelation between Language and SocietyVarieties of language（Dialects、Registers）Bilingualism and DiglossiaPidgin and Creole5.Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects

39、and varieties related to use as registers.6.Dialectal Varieties ：Regional dialect、Social dialect（Sociolect、 Language and gender、 Language and age、 Idiolect、 Ethnic dialect）7.Social dialect refers to a variety of language associated with a particular social group, such as a particular social class, o

40、r ethnic group, or those based on age, gender and occupation.8.An ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregatio

41、n.9.Idiolect refers to the speech variety of an individual. Every speaker has his own way of expressing his or her idea.10.Register refers to the functional variety of language that is defined according to its use in a context of situation.11.Hallidays Register TheoryLanguage varies as its function

42、varies; it differs in different situations.Halliday distinguishes 3 variables that determine the register:field of discourse (语场)、 tenor of discourse (语旨)、 mode of discourse (语式)12.Bilingualism (双语制): the use of two languages, esp with equal or nearly equal fluency.13.Diglossia (双语体现象): when two var

43、ieties of a language exist side by side; and each is used for different purposes, this is called diglossia.14A pidgin : it is a special language variety that mixes and blends languages used for communicative purposes by groups of people who do not know each others language.15.A creole : when a pidgi

44、n has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole.第八章1.What is PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of language in context / use / communication.2 Semantics and PragmaticsSimilar

45、ity：Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic study of meaningDifference：Semantic meaning: the more constant, inherent side of meaning ；Pragmatic meaning: the more indeterminate, the more closely related to context ；Pragmatic = meaning - semantics3.Three Contents :Speech Act Theory、The Theory of

46、Conversational Implicature、Post-Gricean Developments4.Speech Act Theory(言语行为理论)： Performatives and ConstativesA theory of the illocutionary act5.The utterance which performs an act is calleda performative (行事话语)。6.A constative (述事话语) is an utterance which assertssomething that is either true or fals

47、e. 7Characteristics of Implicature：Calculability、Cancellability、Non-detachability、Non-conventionality8.Calculability(可推导性): means that implicature of an utterance can be calculated based on literal meaning, CP and its maxims, context, etc.9.Cancellability/Defeasibility(可取消性/可废除原则) If the factors tha

48、t conversational implicature relied on change, the implicature will also change.10.Relevance Theory关联理论Communicative Principle of Relevance：Every ostensive stimulus conveys a presumption of its own optimal relevance.Cognitive Principle of Relevance：Human cognition tends to be geared to the maximization of relevance.专心-专注-专业