[精选质量管理体系]工程和设计中的人因学（第7版）.doc

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1、【精品文档】 如有侵权， 请联系网站删除，仅供学习与交流.精品文档.精选质量管理体系工程和设计中的人因学（第7版）【精品文档】 如有侵权， 请联系网站删除，仅供学习与交流.精品文档.CONTENTSPREFACEPART1INTRODUCTION1 Human Factors and Systems2 Human Factors Research MethodologiesPART 2 INFORMATION INPUT3 Information Input and Processing4 Text, Graphics, Symbols, and Codes5 Visual Displays

2、of Dynamic information6 Auditory, Tactual, and Olfactory Displays7 Speech CommunicationsPART 3 HUMAN OUTPUT AND CONTROLxi3234791t3216019711 Controls and Data Entry Devices33412 Hand Tools and Devices383PART 4 WORKPLACE DESIGN13 Applied Anthropometry, Work-Space Design,and Sealing41514 Arrangement of

3、 Componentswithin a Physical Space45615 Interpersonal Aspects of Workplace Design485PART 5 ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS16 Illumination51117 Climate55118 Noise58919 Motion622PART 6 HUMAN FACTORS APPLICATIONS20 HumanError, Accidents, and Safety65521 Human Factors and the Automobile69622 Human Factors in S

4、ystems Design726APPENDIXESA List of Abbreviations759B Control Devices764C NIOSH Recommended Action Limit Formulafor Lifting Tasks769PARTONEINTRODUCTIONtHuman Factors and Systems2Human Factors Research Methodologies11 Controls and Data Entry Devices33412 Hand Tools and Devices383PART 4 WORKPLACE DESI

5、GN【精品文档】 如有侵权， 请联系网站删除，仅供学习与交流.精品文档.13 Applied Anthropometry, Work-Space Design,and Sealing41514 Arrangement of Componentswithin a Physical Space45615 Interpersonal Aspects of Workplace Design485PART 5 ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS16 Illumination51117 Climate55118 Noise58919 Motion622PART 6 HUMAN FACTORS

6、 APPLICATIONS20 HumanError, Accidents, and Safety65521 Human Factors and the Automobile69622 Human Factors in Systems Design726APPENDIXESA List of Abbreviations759B Control Devices764C NIOSH Recommended Action Limit Formulafor Lifting Tasks7691CHAPTERHUMAN FACTORS ANDSYSTEMSIn the bygone millennia o

7、ur ancestors lived in an essentially natural environmentin which their existence virtually depended on what they could do directly withtheir hands (as in obtaining food) and with their feet (as in chasing prey, gettingto food sources, and escaping from predators). Over the centuries they developedsi

8、mple tools and utensils, and they constructed shelter for themselves to aid inthe process of keeping alive and making life more tolerable.The human race has come a long way from the days of primitive life to thepresent with our tremendous array of products and facilities that have beenmade possible

9、with current technology, including physical accoutrements andfacilities that simply could not have been imagined by our ancestors in theirwildest dreams. In many civilizations of our present world, the majority of thethings people use are made by people, Even those engaged in activities close tonatu

10、refishing, farming, campinguse many such devices.The current interest in human factors arises from the fact that technologicaldevelopments have focused attention (in some cases dramatically) on the need toconsider human beings in such developments. Have you ever used a tool, device,appliance, or mac

11、hine and said to yourself, What a dumb way to design this; itis so hard to use! If only they had done this or that, using it would be so mucheasier. If you have had such experiences, you have already begun to think interms of human factors considerations in the design of things people use.Norman (19

12、88), in an entertainingbook, providesnumerous examples ofeveryday things that were not designed from a human factors perspective,including single-control shower faucets, videocassette recorders, and stove-topcontrols. In a sense, the goal of human factors is to guide the applications oftechnology in

13、 the direction of benefiting humanity. This text offers an overview ofthe human factors field; its various sections and chapters deal with some of themore important aspects of the field as they apply to such objectives.HUMAN FACTORS DEFINEDBefore attempting to define human factors, we should say a w

14、ord about terms.Human factors is the term used in the United States and a few other countries.The term ergonomics, although used in the United States, is more prevalent inEurope and the rest of the world. Some people have tried to distinguishbetween the two, but we believe that any distinctions are

15、arbitrary and that, forallpracticalpurposes,thetermsaresynonymous.Anothertermthatisoccasionally seen especially within the U.S. military) ishuman engineering.However, this term is less favored by the profession, and its use is waning.Finally, the term engineering psychology is used by some psycholog

16、ists in theUnited States. Some have distinguished engineering psychology, as involvingbasic research on human capabilities and limitations, from human factors, whichis more concerned with the application of the information to the design of things.Suffice it to say, not everyone would agree with such

17、 a distinction.We approach the definition of human factors in terms of its focus, objectives,and approach.【精品文档】 如有侵权， 请联系网站删除，仅供学习与交流.精品文档.Focus of Human FactorsHuman factors focuses on human beings and their interaction with products,equipment,facilities,procedures,andenvironmentsusedinworkandever

18、yday living. The emphasis is on human beings (as opposed to engineering,where the emphasis is more on strictly technical engineering considerations) andhow the design of things influences people. Human factors, then, seeks tochange the things people use and the environments in which they use theseth

19、ings to better match the capabilities, limitations, and needs of people.Objectives of Human FactorsHuman factors has two major objectives, the first is to enhance the effectivenessand efficiency with which work and other activities are carried out. Includedhere would be such things as increased conv

20、enience of use, reduced errors, andincreased productivity. The second objective is to enhance certain desirable humanvalues, including improved safety, reduced fatigue and stress, increased comfort,greater user acceptance, increased job satisfaction, and improved quality of life.It may seem like a t

21、all order to enhance all these varied objectives, but asChapanis 1983) points out, two things help us. First, only a subset of theobjectives are generally of highest importance in a specific application. Second,the objectives are usually correlated. For example, a machine or product that isthe resul

22、t of human factors technology usually not only is safer, but also iseasier to use, results in less fatigue, and is more satisfying to the user.Approach of Human FactorsThe approach of human factors is the systematic application of relevantinformation about human capabilities, limitations, characteri

23、stics, behavior,and motivation to the design of things and procedures people use and theenvironments in which they use them. This involves scientific investigations todiscover relevant information about humans and their responses to things,environments, etc. This information serves as the basis for

24、making designrecommendations and for predicting the probable effects of various designalternatives. The human factors approach also involves the evaluation of thethings we design to ensure that they satisfy their intended objectives.Although no short catch phrase can adequately characterize the scop

25、e of thehuman factors field, such expressions asdesigningforhumanuseandoptimizing working and living conditionsgive a partial impression of whathuman factors is about. For those who would like a concise definition of humanfactors which combines the essential elements of focus, objectives, andapproac

26、h discussed above, we present the following definition, modified slightlyfrom Chapanis (1985):Human factors discovers and applies information abouthuman behavior, abilities, limitations, and other characteristics to the designoftools, machines, systems, tasks, jobs, and environments for productive,

27、safe,comfortable, and effective human use.DiscussionThere are several more or less established doctrines that characterize thehuman factors profession and that together distinguish it from other appliedfields: Commitment to the idea that things, machines, etc. are built to servehumans and must be de

28、signed always with the user in mind Recognition of individual differences in human capabilities and limitationsand an appreciation for their design implications Conviction that the design of things, procedures. etc. influences humanbehavior and well-being Emphasis on empirical data and evaluation in

29、 the design process Reliance on the scientific method and the use of objective data to testhypotheses and generate basic data about human behavior Commitment toasystems orientation and a recognition that things,procedures, environments, and people do not exist in isolationWe would be remiss if we di

30、d not at least mention what human factors is not.All too often, when people are asked what human factors is, they respond bysaying what it is not. The following are three things human factors is not.Human factors is not just applying checklists and guidelines.To be sure,human factors people develop

31、and use checklists and guidelines; however,such aids are only part of the work of human factors. There is not a checklist orguideline in existence today that, if it were blindly applied, would ensure a goodhuman factors product. Trade-offs, considerations of the specific application,and educated opi

32、nions are things that cannot be captured by a checklist orguideline but are all important in designing for human use.Human factors is not using oneself as the model for designing things.Justbecause a set of instructions makes sense to an engineer, there is no guaranteeothers will understand them. Ju

33、st because a designer can reach all the controlson a machine, that is no guarantee that everyone else will be able to do so.Human factors recognizes individual differences and the need to consider theunique characteristics of user populations in designing things for their use.Simply being a human be

34、ing does not make a person a qualified human factorsspecialist.Human factors is not just common .tense.To some extent, use of commonsense would improve a design, but human factors is more than just that.Knowing how large to make letters on a sign to be read at a specific distance orselecting an audi

35、ble warning that can be heard and distinguished from otheralarms is not determined by simple common sense. Knowing how long it will【精品文档】 如有侵权， 请联系网站删除，仅供学习与交流.精品文档.take pilots to respond to a warning light or buzzer is also not just commonsense. Given the number of human factors deficiencies in the

36、 things we use, ifhuman factors is based on just common sense, then we must conclude thatcommon sense is not very common.A HISTORY OF HUMAN FACTORSTo understand human factors, it is important to know from where the disciplinecame. It is not possible, however, to present more than just a brief overvi

37、ew ofthe major human factors developments. We have chosen to concentrate ondevelopments in the United States, but several sources trace the history inother countries see, for example, Edholm and Murrell (1973), Singleton (1 9/t2),and Welford (1976).Early HistoryIt could be said that human factors st

38、arted when early humans first fashionedsimple tools and utensils. Such an assertion, however, might be a littlepresumptuous. The development of the human factors field has been inextricablyintertwined with developments in technology and as such had its beginning inthe industrial revolution of the la

39、te 1800s and early 1900s. It was during theearly 1900s. for example, that Frank and Lillian Gilbreth began their work inmotion study and shop management. The Gilbreths work can be considered asone of the forerunners to what was later to be called human factors. Their workincluded the study of skille

40、d performance and fatigue and the design ofworkstations and equipment for the handicapped. Their analysis of hospitalsurgicalteams, for example, resulted in a procedure used today: a surgeon obtains aninstrument by calling for it and extending his or her hand to a nurse who placesthe instrument in t

41、he proper orientation. Prior to the Gilbreths work, surgeonspicked up their own instruments from a tray. The Gilbreths found that with theold technique surgeons spent as much time looking for instruments as they didlooking at the patient.Despite the early contributions of people such as the Gilbreth

42、s, the idea ofadapting equipment and procedures to people was not exploited. The majoremphasis of behavioral scientists through World War 11 was on the use of testsfor selecting the proper people for jobs and on the development of improvedtraining procedures. The focus was clearly on fitting the per

43、son to the job.During World War II, however, it became clear that, even with the bestselection and training, the operation of some of the complex equipment stillexceeded the capabilities of the people who had to operate it. It was time toreconsider fitting the equipment to the person.1945to 1980: Th

44、e Birth of a ProfessionAt the end of the war in 1945. engineering psychology laboratories wereestablished by the U.S. Army Air Corps (later to become the U.S. Air Force)and U.S. Navy. At about the same time, the first civilian company was formedto do engineering psychology contract work (Dunlap & As

45、sociates). Parallelefforts were being undertaken in Britain, fostered by the Medical ResearchCouncil and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.It was during the period after the war that the human factors profession wasborn. In 1949 the Ergonomics Research Society (now called simply t

46、heErgonomics Society) was formed in Britain, and the first book on humanfactors was published, entitled Applied Experimental Psychology: HumanFactors in Engineering Design (Chapanis, Garner, and Morgan, 1949). Duringthe next few years conferences were held, human factors publicationsappeared,andaddi

47、tionalhumanfactorslaboratoriesandconsultingcompanies were established.The year 1957 was an important year, especially for human factors in theUnited States. In that year the journal Ergonomics from the ErgonomicsResearch Society appeared, the Human Factors Society was formed, Division21(SocietyofEng

48、ineeringPsychology)oftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation was organized, the first edition of this book was published, and Russialaunched Sputnik and the race for space was on. In 1959 the InternationalErgonomics Association was formed to link several human factors andergonomics societies in various

49、countries around the world.1980 to 1980: A Periodof RapidGrowthThe 20 years between 1960 and 1980 saw rapid growth and expansion of humanfactors. Until the 1960s, human factors in the United States was essentiallyconcentrated in the military-industrial complex. With the race for space and8PART IINTR

50、ODUCTIONstaffed space flight, human factors quickly became an important part of thespace program.As anindication of the growth of human factors during thisperiod, consider that in 1960 the membership of the Human Factors Societywas about 500; by 1980 it had grown to over 3000. More important, during