英国历史简介_1.docx

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1、英国历史简介英国英国简史(英文)2006-1-23页面功能【字体：大中小】【打印】【关闭】HistoryUntil1707,thissectiondealsprimarilywithEnglishhistory.EnglandandWaleswereformallyunitedin1536.In1707,whenGreatBritainwascreatedbytheActofUnionbetweenScotlandandEngland,EnglishhistorybecamepartofBritishhistory.FortheearlyhistoryofScotlandandWales,se

2、eseparatearticles.SeealsoIreland;Ireland,Northern;andthetablesentitledRulersofEnglandandGreatBritainandPrimeMinistersofGreatBritain.EarlyPeriodtotheNormanConquestLittleisknownabouttheearliestinhabitantsofBritain,buttheremainsoftheirdolmensandbarrowsandthegreatstonecirclesatStonehengeandAveburyareevi

3、denceofthedevelopedcultureoftheprehistoricBritons.TheyhaddevelopedaBronzeAgeculturebythetimethefirstCelticinvaders(early5thcent.B.C.)broughttheirenergeticIronAgeculturetoBritain.ItisbelievedthatJuliusCaesarssuccessfulmilitarycampaigninBritainin54B.C.wasaimedatpreventingincursionsintoGaulfromtheislan

4、d.InA.D.43theemperorClaudiusbegantheRomanconquestofBritain,establishingbasesatpresent-dayLondonandColchester.ByA.D.85,RomecontrolledBritainsouthoftheClydeRiver.Therewereanumberofrevoltsintheearlyyearsoftheconquest,themostfamousbeingthatofBoadicea.Inthe2dcent.A.D.,HadriansWallwasconstructedasanorther

5、ndefenseline.UndertheRomanoccupationtownsdeveloped,androadswerebuilttoensurethesuccessofthemilitaryoccupation.TheseroadswerethemostlastingRomanachievementinBritain(seeWatlingStreet),longservingasthebasicarteriesofoverlandtransportationinEngland.Colchester,Lincoln,andGloucesterwerefoundedbytheRomansa

6、scolonia,settlementsofex-legionaries.Tradecontributedtotownprosperity;wine,oliveoil,plate,andfurnishingswereimported,andlead,tin,iron,wheat,andwoolwereexported.ThistradedeclinedwiththeeconomicdislocationofthelateRomanEmpireandthewithdrawalofRomantroopstomeetbarbarianthreatselsewhere.Thegarrisonshadb

7、eenconsumersoftheproductsoflocalartisansaswellasofimports;astheyweredisbanded,thetownsdecayed.Barbarianincursionsbecamefrequent.In410anappealtoRomeformilitaryaidwasrefused,andRomanofficialssubsequentlywerewithdrawn.AsRomewithdrewitslegionsfromBritain,GermanicpeoplestheAnglo-SaxonsandtheJutesbeganrai

8、dsthatturnedintogreatwavesofinvasionandsettlementinthelater5thcent.TheCeltsfellbackintoWalesandCornwallandacrosstheEnglishChanneltoBrittany,andthelooselyknittribesofthenewcomersgraduallycoalescedintoaheptarchyofkingdoms(seeKent,Sussex,Essex,Wessex,EastAnglia,Mercia,andNorthumbria).Lateinthe8thcent.,

9、andwithincreasingseverityuntilthemiddleofthe9thcent.,raidingVikings(knowninEnglishhistoryasDanes)harassedcoastalEnglandandfinally,in865,launchedafull-scaleinvasion.TheywerefirsteffectivelycheckedbyKingAlfredofWessexandwerewithgreatdifficultyconfinedtotheDanelaw,wheretheirleadersdividedlandamongtheso

10、ldiersforsettlement.AlfredssuccessorsconqueredtheDanelawtoformaunitedEngland,butnewDanishinvasionslateinthe10thcent.overcameineffectiveresistance(see?thelred,965?1016).TheDaneCanuteruledallEnglandby1016.AttheexpirationoftheScandinavianlinein1042,theWessexdynasty(seeEdwardtheConfessor)regainedthethro

11、ne.TheconquestofEnglandin1066byWilliam,dukeofNormandy(WilliamIofEngland),endedtheAnglo-Saxonperiod.Thefreeman(ceorl)oftheearlyGermanicinvadershadbeenresponsibletothekingandsuperiortotheserf.Subsequentcenturiesofwarandsubsistencefarming,however,hadforcedthemajorityoffreemenintoserfdom,ordependenceont

12、hearistocracyoflordsandthanes,whocametoenjoyalargemeasureofautonomouscontrolovermanorsgrantedthembytheking(seemanorialsystem).Thecentralgovernmentevolvedfromtribalchieftainshipstobecomeamonarchyinwhichexecutiveandjudicialpowerswereusuallyvestedintheking.Thearistocracymadeuphiswitan,orcouncilofadvise

13、rs(seewitenagemot).Thekingsetupshiresasunitsoflocalgovernmentruledbyearldormen.Insomeinstancestheseearldormenbecamepowerfulhereditaryearls,rulingseveralshires.Subdivisionsofshireswerecalledhundreds.Therewereshireandhundredcourts,theformerheadedbysheriffs,thelatterbyreeves.Agriculturewastheprincipali

14、ndustry,buttheDaneswereaggressivetraders,andtownsincreasedinimportancestartinginthe9thcent.TheAnglo-SaxonshadbeenChristianizedbymissionariesfromRomeandfromIreland,andtheinfluenceofChristianitybecamestronglymanifestinallphasesofculture(seeAnglo-Saxonliterature).DifferencesbetweenIrishandcontinentalre

15、ligiouscustomsweredecidedinfavoroftheRomanformsattheSynodofWhitby(663).Monasticcommunities,outstandinginthelater7thandinthe8thcent.andstronglyrevivedinthe10th,developedgreatproficiencyinmanuscriptillumination.Churchscholars,suchasBede,Alcuin,andAelfricaswellasKingAlfredhimselfpreservedandadvancedlea

16、rning.MedievalEnglandAnewerainEnglishhistorybeganwiththeNormanConquest.WilliamIintroducedNorman-stylepoliticalandmilitaryfeudalism.Heusedthefeudalsystemtocollecttaxes,employedthebureaucracyofthechurchtostrengthenthecentralgovernment,andmadetheadministrationofroyaljusticemoreefficient.Afterthedeathof

17、Williamssecondson,HenryI,thecountrywassubjectedtoaperiodofcivilwarthatendedoneyearbeforetheaccessionofHenryIIin1154.HenryIIsreignwasmarkedbythesharpconflictbetweenkingandchurchthatledtothemurderofThomas角Becket.Henrycarriedoutgreatjudicialreformsthatincreasedthepowerandscopeoftheroyalcourts.Duringhis

18、reign,in1171,begantheEnglishconquestofIreland.AspartofhisinheritancehebroughttothethroneAnjou,Normandy,andAquitaine.ThedefenseandenlargementoftheseFrenchterritoriesengagedtheenergiesofsuccessiveEnglishkings.IntheirneedformoneythekingsstimulatedthegrowthofEnglishtownsbysellingthemchartersofliberties.

19、Conflictbetweenkingsandnobles,whichhadbegununderRichardI,cametoaheadunderJohn,whomadeunprecedentedfinancialdemandsandwhoseforeignandchurchpolicieswereunsuccessful.AtemporaryvictoryofthenoblesborefruitinthemostnotedofallEnglishconstitutionaldocuments,theMagnaCarta(1215).Therecurringbaronialwarsofthe1

20、3thcent.(seeBaronsWar;Montfort,Simonde,earlofLeicester)wereroughlycontemporaneouswiththefirststepsinthedevelopmentofParliament.EdwardIbegantheconquestofWalesandScotland.Healsocarriedoutanelaboratereformandexpansionofthecentralcourtsandofotheraspectsofthelegalsystem.TheHundredYearsWarwithFrancebegan(

21、1337)inthereignofEdwardIII.TheBlackDeath(seeplague)firstarrivedin1348andhadatremendouseffectoneconomiclife,hasteningthebreakdown(longsinceunderway)ofthemanorialandfeudalsystems,includingtheinstitutionofserfdom.Atthesametimethefast-growingtownsandtradesgavenewprominencetotheburgessandartisanclasses.I

22、nthe14thcent.theEnglishbeganexportingtheirwool,ratherthandependingonforeigntradersofEnglishwool.Laterinthecentury,tradeinwoolenclothbegantogainontherawwooltrade.Theconfusionresultingfromsuchrapidsocialandeconomicchangefosteredradicalthought,typifiedintheteachingsofJohnWyclif(orWycliffe;seealsoLollar

23、dry,andtherevoltledbyWatTyler.Dynasticwars(seeRoses,Warsofthe),whichweakenedboththenobilityandthemonarchyinthe15thcent.,endedwiththeaccessionoftheTudorfamilyin1485.TudorEnglandThereignoftheTudors(14851603)isoneofthemostfascinatingperiodsinEnglishhistory.HenryVIIrestoredpoliticalorderandthefinancials

24、olvencyofthecrown,bequeathinghisson,HenryVIII,afullexchequer.In1536,HenryVIIIbroughtaboutthepoliticalunionofEnglandandWales.HenryandhisministerThomasCromwellgreatlyexpandedthecentraladministration.DuringHenrysreigncommerceflourishedandtheNewLearningoftheRenaissancecametoEngland.Severalfactorstherevi

25、valofLollardry,anticlericalism,theinfluenceofhumanism,andburgeoningnationalismclimaxedbythepopesrefusaltograntHenryadivorcefromKatharineofArag车nsothathecouldremarryandhaveamaleheirledthekingtobreakwithRomanCatholicismandestablishtheChurchofEngland.AspartoftheEnglishReformation(152939),Henrysuppresse

26、dtheordersofmonksandfriarsandsecularizedtheirproperty.Althoughtheseactionsarousedsomepopularopposition(seePilgrimageofGrace),HenrysjudicioususeofParliamenthelpedsecuresupportforhispoliciesandsetimportantprecedentsforthefutureofParliament.EnglandmovedfarthertowardProtestantismunderEdwardVI;afteragene

27、rallyhatedRomanCatholicrevivalunderMaryI,theRomantiewasagaincutunderElizabethI,whoattemptedwithoutcompletesuccesstomoderatethereligiousdifferencesamongherpeople.TheElizabethanagewasoneofgreatartisticandintellectualachievement,itsmostnotablefigurebeingWilliamShakespeare.Nationalpridebaskedintheexploi

28、tsofSirFrancisDrake,SirJohnHawkins,andtheotherseadogs.OverseastradingcompanieswereformedandcolonizationattemptsintheNewWorldweremadebySirHumphreyGilbertandSirWalterRaleigh.AlongconflictwithSpain,growingpartlyoutofcommercialandmaritimerivalryandpartlyoutofreligiousdifferences,culminatedinthedefeatoft

29、heSpanishArmada(1588),althoughthewarcontinuedanother15years.Inflatedprices(caused,inpart,byaninfluxofpreciousmetalsfromtheNewWorld)andthereservationoflandbytheprocessofinclosureforsheeppasture(stimulatedbytheexpansionofthewooltrade)causedgreatchangesinthesocialandeconomicstructureofEngland.Theenclos

30、uresdisplacedmanytenantfarmersfromtheirlandsandproducedaclassofwandering,unemployedsturdybeggars.TheElizabethanpoorlawswereanattempttodealwiththisproblem.Risingpricesaffectedthemonarchyaswell,byreducingthevalueofitsfixedcustomaryandhereditaryrevenues.Thecountrygentrywereenrichedbytheinclosuresandbyt

31、heirpurchaseofformermonasticlands,whichwerealsousedforgrazing.Thegentrybecameleadersinwhat,towardtheendofElizabethsreign,wasanincreasinglyassertiveParliament.TheStuartsTheaccessionin1603oftheStuartJamesI,whowasalsoJamesVIofScotland,unitedthethronesofEnglandandScotland.ThechronicneedformoneyofbothJam

32、esandhisson,CharlesI,whichtheyattemptedtomeetbyunusualandextralegalmeans;theirespousalofthedivinerightofkings;theirdeterminationtoenforcetheirhighAnglicanpreferencesinreligion;andtheiruseofroyalcourtssuchasStarChamber,whichwerenotboundbythecommonlaw,topersecuteopponents,togetherproducedabitterconfli

33、ctwithParliamentthatculminated(1642)intheEnglishcivilwar.Inthewartheparliamentarians,effectivelyledattheendbyOliverCromwell,defeatedtheroyalists.Thekingwastriedfortreasonandbeheaded(1649).Themonarchywasabolished,andthecountrywasgovernedbytheRumpParliament,theremainderofthelastParliament(theLongParli

34、ament)Charleshadcalled(1640),until1653,whenCromwelldissolveditandestablishedtheProtectorate.CromwellbrutallysubjugatedIreland,madeasinglecommonwealthofScotlandandEngland,andstrengthenedEnglandsnavalpowerandpositionininternationaltrade.Whenhedied(1658),hisson,Richard,succeededasLordProtectorbutgovern

35、edineffectively.ThethreatofanarchyledtoaninvitationbyanewlyelectedParliament(theConventionParliament)toCharles,sonofCharlesI,tobecomeking,usheringintheRestoration(1660).ItwassignificantthatParliamenthadsummonedtheking,ratherthanthereverse;itwasnowclearthattobesuccessfulthekinghadtocooperatewithParli

36、ament.TheWhigandTorypartiesdevelopedintheRestorationperiod.AlthoughCharlesIIwaspersonallypopular,theoldissuesofreligion,money,andtheroyalprerogativecametotheforeagain.ParliamentrevivedofficialAnglicanism(seeClarendonCode),butCharlessprivatesympathieslaywithCatholicism.HeattemptedtobypassParliamentin

37、thematterofrevenuebyreceivingsubsidiesfromLouisXIVofFrance.Charlessbrotherandsuccessor,JamesII,wasanavowedCatholic.JamestriedtostrengthenhispositioninParliamentbytamperingwiththemethodsofselectingmembers;heputCatholicsinhighuniversitypositions,maintainedastandingarmy(whichlaterdesertedhim),andclaime

38、dtherighttosuspendlaws.Thebirth(1688)ofamaleheir,who,itwasassumed,wouldberaisedasaCatholic,precipitatedacrisis.IntheGloriousRevolution,WhigandToryleadersofferedthethronetoWilliamofOrange(WilliamIII),whoseProtestantwife,Mary,wasJamessdaughter.WilliamandMarywereproclaimedkingandqueenbyParliamentin1689

39、.TheBillofRightsconfirmedthatsovereigntyresidedinParliament.TheActofToleration(1689)extendedreligiouslibertytoallProtestantsects;insubsequentyears,religiouspassionsslowlysubsided.BytheActofSettlement(1701)thesuccessiontotheEnglishthronewasdetermined.Since1603,withtheexceptionofthe165460portionofthei

40、nterregnum,ScotlandandEnglandhadremainedtwokingdomsunitedonlyinthepersonofthemonarch.WhenitappearedthatWilliamssuccessor,QueenAnne,MarysProtestantsister,wouldnothaveanheir,theScottishsuccessionbecameofconcern,sincetheScottishParliamenthadnotpassedlegislationcorrespondingtotheActofSettlement.Englandf

41、earedthatunderaseparatemonarchScotlandmightallyitselfwithFrance,orworsestill,permitarestorationoftheCatholicheirsofJamesIIalthoughanon-ProtestantsuccessionhadbeenbarredbytheScottishParliament.Onitspart,ScotlandwishedtoachieveeconomicequalitywithEngland.TheresultwastheActofUnion(1707),bywhichthetwoki

42、ngdomsbecameone.Scotlandobtainedrepresentationin(whatthenbecame)theBritishParliamentatWestminster,andtheScottishParliamentwasabolished.TheGrowthofEmpireandEighteenth-CenturyPoliticalDevelopmentsThebeginningsofBritainsnationaldebt(1692)andthefoundingoftheBankofEngland(1694)werecloselytiedwiththenatio

43、nsmoreactiveroleinworldaffairs.Britainsoverseaspossessions(seeBritishEmpire)wereaugmentedbythevictoriousoutcomeoftheWaroftheSpanishSuccession,ratifiedinthePeaceofUtrecht(1713).BritainemergedfromtheWaroftheAustrianSuccessionandfromtheSevenYearsWarasthepossessoroftheworldsgreatestempire.Thepeaceof1763

44、(seeParis,Treatyof)confirmedBritishpredominanceinIndiaandNorthAmerica.SettlementsweremadeinAustraliatowardtheendofthe18thcent.;however,aseriouslosswassustainedwhen13NorthAmericancoloniesbrokeawayintheAmericanRevolution.AdditionalcolonieswerewoninthewarsagainstNapoleonI,notableforthevictoriesofHorati

45、oNelsonandArthurWellesley,dukeofWellington.InIreland,theIrishParliamentwasgrantedindependencein1782,butin1798therewasanIrishrebellion.Avainattempttosolvethecenturies-oldIrishproblemwastheabrogationoftheIrishParliamentandtheunion(1801)ofGreatBritainandIreland,withIrelandrepresentedintheBritishParliam

46、ent.DomesticallythelongministryofSirRobertWalpole(172142),duringthereignsofGeorgeIandGeorgeII,wasaperiodofrelativestabilitythatsawthebeginningsofthedevelopmentofthecabinetasthechiefexecutiveorganofgovernment.The18thcent.wasatimeoftransitioninthegrowthoftheBritishparliamentarysystem.Themonarchstillpl

47、ayedaveryactiveroleingovernment,choosinganddismissingministersashewished.Occasionally,sentimentinParliamentmightforceanunwantedministeronhim,aswhenGeorgeIIIwasforcedtochooseRockinghamin1782,butthekingcoulddissolveParliamentandusehisconsiderablepatronagepowertosecureanewonemoreamenabletohisviews.Grea

48、tpoliticalleadersofthelate18thcent.,suchastheearlofChatham(seeChatham,WilliamPitt,1stearlof)andhissonWilliamPitt,couldnotgovernindisregardofthecrown.Importantmovementsforpoliticalandsocialreformaroseinthesecondhalfofthe18thcent.GeorgeIIIsarrogantandsomewhatanachronisticconceptionofthecrownsroleprodu

49、cedamovementamongWhigsinParliamentthatcalledforareformandreductionofthekingspower.EdmundBurkewasaleaderofthisgroup,aswastheeccentricJohnWilkes.TheToryPittwasalsoareformer.ThesemenalsoopposedBritainscolonialpolicyinNorthAmerica.OutsideParliament,religiousdissenters(whowereexcludedfrompoliticaloffice),intellectuals,andothersadvocatedsweepingreformsofestablishedpracticesandinstitutions.AdamSmithsWealthofNations,advocatinglaissez-faire,appearedin1776,thesameyearasthefirs