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1、Reviews in Fisheries Science, 18(2):189210, 2010CopyrightC?Taylor and Francis Group, LLCISSN: 1064-1262 printDOI: 10.1080/10641262.2010.491564Responsible Approach to MarineStock Enhancement: An UpdateKAI LORENZEN,1,2,3KENNETH M. LEBER,3and H. LEE BLANKENSHIP41Program in Fisheries and Aquatic Science

2、s, School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville,Florida, USA2Division of Biology, Imperial College London, Silwood Park, Ascot, UK3Center for Fisheries Enhancement, Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota, Florida, USA4Northwest Marine Technology, Shaw Island, Washington,

3、 USAMarine stock enhancement is a set of management approaches involving the release of cultured organisms to enhance orrestore fisheries. Such practices, including sea ranching, stock enhancement, and restocking, are widespread, of variablesuccess, and often controversial. A set of principles aimed

4、 at promoting responsible development of restocking, stockenhancement, and sea ranching has been proposed by Blankenship and Leber American Fisheries Society Symposia 15:167175(1995),andhasgainedwidespreadacceptanceastheResponsibleApproach.Fisheriesscienceandmanagement,in general, and many aspects o

5、f fisheries enhancement have developed rapidly since the responsible approach was firstformulated. Here we provide an update to the Responsible Approach in light of these developments. The updated approachemphasizes the need for taking a broad and integrated view of the role of enhancements within f

6、isheries managementsystems; using a stakeholder participatory and scientifically informed, accountable planning process; and assessing thepotential contribution of enhancement and alternative or additional measures to fisheries management goals early on inthe development or reform process. Progress

7、in fisheries assessment methods applicable to enhancements and in fisheriesgovernance provides the means for practical implementation of the updated approach.Keywordsfisheries enhancement, stock enhancement, sea ranching, restocking, responsible approach, planning, assess-ment, population dynamics,

8、modelsINTRODUCTIONMany of the worlds fisheries are fully exploited or overex-ploited, as well as suffering from the effects of aquatic habitatdegradation. Global capture fisheries production is stagnant,while seafood demand is steadily increasing (FAO, 2009); anumber of formerly productive stocks ha

9、ve collapsed with onlylimited evidence of recovery, and ecosystem-level impacts ofbiomass removal and fishing gear disturbance have become in-creasingly evident (Hutchings, 2000; Pauly et al., 2002; Hilbornet al., 2003; Hilborn, 2007b).Besides control of fishing effort and habitat protection orresto

10、ration, aquaculture-based enhancement is a third princi-pal means by which fisheries can be sustained and improvedAddress correspondence to Kai Lorenzen, Program in Fisheries andAquatic Sciences, School of Forest Resources and Conservation, Univer-sity of Florida, 7922 NW 71st St., Gainesville, FL 3

11、2653, USA. E-mail:kai.lorenzenaquaticresources.org(Munro and Bell, 1997; Welcomme and Bartley, 1998; Blaxter,2000; Bell et al., 2005). Aquaculture-based fisheries enhance-ment is a set of management approaches involving the releaseof cultured organisms to enhance, conserve, or restore fisheries.This

12、 definition covers a great diversity of enhancement fish-eries systems including Sea ranching, Stock enhancement,and Restocking (Bell et al., 2006; Lorenzen, 2008). Here wefocus on fundamental attributes shared by most enhancementsystems but also emphasize how different objectives and situ-ations gi

13、ve rise to different system designs. For simplicity, werefer to all forms of aquaculture-based fisheries enhancementsas enhancements and to the target organisms as fish.Aquaculture-based enhancements can, at least in principle,generate a range of benefits (Howell et al., 1999; Leber et al.,2004, Bel

14、l et al., 2008, Lorenzen, 2008). In biological terms,enhancement can (1) increase yield through manipulation ofpopulation and/or food web structure, thus raising fisheries pro-ductionatlowexternalinputsanddegreeofhabitatmodification;189190K. LORENZEN ET AL.(2) aid the conservation and rebuilding of

15、depleted, threatened,and endangered populations; and (3) provide partial mitiga-tion for habitat loss and ecosystem effects of fishing. This maygive rise to economic and social benefits, including new op-portunities for fisheries-related livelihoods (Smith et al., 2005;Garaway, 2006). Enhancements c

16、an also provide incentives foractive management and better governance of common pool re-sources(Arbuckle,2000;Garawayetal.,2006,Tomiyamaetal.,2008). However, many enhancements have failed to deliver sig-nificant increases in yield or economic benefits, and/or havehad deleterious effects on the natur

17、ally recruited components ofthe target stocks (Hilborn, 1998; Levin et al., 2001; Arnason,2001; Naish et al., 2007). Sometimes enhancements have con-tributedtomanagementfailurebyencouragingorcompensatingfor counterproductive changes in fishing patterns or for habitatdegradation (Meffe, 1992; Taylor,

18、 1999).While some enhancement initiatives have increased yields,generatedeconomicandsocialbenefits,andhelpedcreatebetterfisheries management institutions, only a few such success sto-ries have been documented in the scientific literature (Pinker-ton, 1994; Lorenzen et al., 1998; Drummond, 2004; Uki,

19、 2006;Garaway,2006;Beckeretal.,2008).Overall,thecontributionofenhancementstoglobalfisheriesproductionhasremainedsmall,atbelow2%oftheglobaltotal(Lorenzenetal.,2001).Itis,thus,pertinenttoaskwhyenhancementshavenotmadeagreatercon-tribution to fisheries. We believe there are several contributingfactors.

20、Success in fisheries management is measured againstan increasingly broad set of criteria: biological (yield, ecosys-tem indicators), economic, social, and institutional attributes(Charles, 2001; Garcia and Charles, 2007). Enhancements canscore well on a range of criteria, but only under certain cond

21、i-tions. These include existing ecological, economic, and socialconditions;andtechnologiesandinstitutionalarrangementsthatare well adapted to those conditions. Moreover, enhancementsneed to add value to, or outperform alternative managementmeasures, such as fisheries regulation or habitat restoratio

22、n,which may be either cheaper or provide a wider range of ben-efits. These considerations suggest that enhancement initiativesneed to be assessed, if not positively driven, from a fisheriesmanagement perspective rather than the aquaculture productionperspective that has been traditionally dominant.T

23、heeffectivenessofstockingculturedorganisms,though,hasbeenhamperedbylackofascientific,institutional,andfisheries-management perspective in planning, design, implementa-tion, and evaluation of enhancement programs (Cowx, 1994;Blankenship and Leber, 1995; Munro and Bell, 1997; Leber,1999; Hilborn, 1998

24、, 1999; Lorenzen et al., 2001; Bell et al.,2005, 2006, 2008; Bartley and Bell, 2008; Lorenzen, 2008).Although fishery managers began to stock cultured fishes intothe sea in the 1880s, no scientific publications appeared abouteffectiveness of releases until empirical studies of anadromoussalmonids be

25、gan to be published in the 1970s (Hager and No-ble, 1976) followed by the first studies of marine fishes in 1989and 1990 (Tsukamoto et al., 1989; Sv asand and Kristiansen,1990a, 1990b; Sv asand et al., 1990; Kristiansen and Sv asand,1990). Thus, lacking a foundation of quantitative informationfor ev

26、aluating stockings real potential as a tool in the fisherymanagement toolbox, by the 1990s the marine enhancementfield had largely floundered for over a century (Leber, 1999).In response to a clear need for change, Cowx (1994, for en-hancements in freshwater systems) and Blankenship and Leber(1995,f

27、ormarinesystems)publishedearlyplatformpaperscall-ing for a responsible approach to stock enhancement. Thoseearlypaperspresentedasetofprinciplesaimedatpromotingtheresponsible development of culture-based fisheries/ranching,stock enhancement and restocking. Since then, there have beenconcertedeffortst

28、oapplyresponsibleapproachestothedevelop-ment of new enhancements and to reform existing, operationalenhancements in this light (e.g., Mobrand et al., 2005; Zoharet al., 2008).The ten principles for developing, evaluating, and manag-ing marine stock enhancement programs set out in Blankenshipand Lebe

29、r (1995) have gained widespread acceptance as theResponsible Approach to stocking (Table 1). The Respon-sible Approach has been widely cited and has provided a keyconceptual framework forseveral subsequent publications (e.g.,Munro and Bell, 1997; Hilborn, 1999, Bell et al., 2005, 2006,2008; Taylor e

30、t al., 2005; Zohar et al., 2008). More importantly,it has been used to guide hatchery development and reform pro-cesses in Australia (Taylor et al., 2005; Gardner and Van Putten,2008; Potter et al., 2008; Taylor and Suthers, 2008), Denmark(Stttrup et al., 2008), Japan (Kitada, 1999; Kuwada et al.,Ta

31、ble 1Elements of a responsible approach outlined in Blankenship and Leber (1995)1. Prioritize and select target species for enhancement by ranking and applying criteria for species selection; once selected, assess reasons for decline of thewild population.2. Develop a management plan that identifies

32、 how stock enhancement fits with the regional plan for managing stocks.3. Define quantitative measures of success.4. Use genetic resource management to avoid deleterious genetic effects on wild stocks.5. Implement a disease and health management plan.6. Consider ecological, biological, and life-hist

33、ory patterns in forming enhancement objectives and tactics; seek to understand behavioral, biological, andecological requirements of released and wild fish.7. Identify released hatchery fish and assess stocking effects on fishery and on wild stock abundance.8. Use an empirical process for defining o

34、ptimal release strategies.9. Identify economic objectives and policy guidelines, and educate stakeholders about the need for a responsible approach and the time frame required todevelop a successful enhancement program.10. Use adaptive management to refine production and stocking plans and to contro

35、l the effectiveness of stocking.reviews in fisheries sciencevol. 18 2 2010RESPONSIBLE APPROACH TO MARINE STOCK ENHANCEMENT: AN UPDATE1912000, 2004), New Caledonia (Purcell and Simutoga, 2008),Phillipines (Le Vay et al., 2008), and the USA (e.g., Leber,2004), particularly in California (Bartley et al

36、., 1995), Florida(Willis et al., 1995; Leber, 2004; Tringali et al., 2008), Geor-gia (Woodward, 2003), Hawaii (Leber et al., 1996, 1997, 1998;Friedlander and Ziemann, 2003), Maryland (Zohar et al., 2008),Mississippi (Blaylock et al., 2000), New Hampshire (Fairchildet al., 2005), North Carolina (Eggl

37、eston et al., 2008), SouthCarolina (Smith et al., 2003; Jenkins et al., 2004), Texas (Karls-son et al., 2008), and Washington (Mobrand et al., 2005). Atthe same time, there has been a rapid increase in peer-reviewedliterature on effects and effectiveness of stocking.KEY DEVELOPMENTS SINCE THE RESPON

38、SIBLEAPPROACH WAS FIRST FORMULATEDFisheries science and management in general, and many as-pects of fisheries enhancement have developed rapidly since theresponsible approach was first formulated. Governance in manyfisheries has changed from open access and/or government-regulation to alternative, m

39、arket- and community-based ap-proaches (Hilborn et al., 2005). This has created stronger andmore effective governance, creating conditions that may alsobe conducive to developing and sustaining enhancements. Insome cases, enhancement initiatives have been instrumentalin bringing about change in gove

40、rnance with wider benefits(Drummond, 2004; Lorenzen, 2008). At the same time, eco-logical and social impacts of fisheries and their managementhave come to the forefront of management decision making andpublic debate. Management goals have become increasinglymulti-dimensional (Hilborn, 2007a). Spatia

41、l heterogeneity anddynamics in marine ecosystems and social systems, scientificrecognition of smaller-scale connectivity, and movements to setaside marine areas for conservation have given rise to marinespatial planning (Lorenzen et al., 2010).In parallel, and often in interaction with the aforement

42、ioneddevelopments in fisheries, significant changes have occurred inthe science and practice of fisheries enhancement. Perhaps themost significant of these has been a drive towards fully integrat-ing enhancements into fisheries management frameworks anddecision making. This has progressed furthest i

43、n the Japaneseand New Zealand scallop enhancements and in US Pacificsalmon hatchery programs (Drummond, 2004; Mobrand et al.,2005; Uki, 2006; HSRG, 2009). The shift towards looking atenhancements from a fisheries management perspective is facil-itated by the emergence of stock assessment models and

44、toolsthat allow evaluation of the contribution of enhancements tomanagement goals and tradeoffs with other harvest and habi-tat management (Walters and Martell, 2004; Lorenzen, 2005;Mobrand, Jones, and Stokes Associates, 2006). A broader viewof the role of enhancement in fishery systems has also eme

45、rged(Lorenzen, 2008).Many other areas of enhancement science and practice haveseen substantial, incremental development. Domestication pro-cesses and their management are increasingly well understood(Gross, 1998; Thorpe, 2004; Araki et al., 2008; Frankham,2008). Many studies have been conducted to e

46、valuate ecolog-ical differences between wild and released hatchery fish andtheir implications for population dynamics (Fleming and Pe-tersson,2001; Lorenzen, 2005). Rapid methodological and con-ceptual development has occurred in population genetics. Thishas shown widespread occurrence of adaptive g

47、enetic variationat relatively small spatial scales and fitness effects of hybridiza-tionbetweenwildandhatcheryfish(Conoveretal.,2006;Arakiet al., 2008; Fraser, 2008). Methodological advances now alsoallow marking of fish at any life stage (e.g., Tringali, 2006).These developments make it necessary t

48、o revise the respon-sible approach to take into account, in particular, the paradigmshift towards analyzing and managing enhancements from afisheries management perspective. The developments also pro-vide the tools for implementing the shift.Most enhancements remain weak in four particular areas: (1

49、)fishery stock assessments and modelling are integral to explor-ing the potential contribution of stocking to fisheries manage-ment goals; yet both are found lacking in most stock enhance-ment efforts in coastal systems; (2) establishing a governanceframework for enhancements is largely ignored in s

50、tocking pro-grams, thus, diminishing opportunities for integrating enhance-ment into fishery management; (3) involvement of stakeholdersin planning and execution of stocking programs is key from thestart, but they are rarely made an integral part of program devel-opment; and (4) adaptive management