2022年新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理 .pdf

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1、1 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.Linguistics:语言学 It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general) 2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics. (language is a co

2、mplicated entity with multiple layers and facets ) 3.Language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 4.descriptive (描述性 ):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. 5.prescriptive(规定性 ): It aims to lay down rules for “corr

3、ect and standard ” behaviors. i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say. 6.synchronic(共时语言学 ): the description of language at some point of time in hiatory 7.diachronic (历时语言学 ):the description of language as it changes through time 3) speech （口语） Writing （书面语）These the two media of

4、communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing) 8.langue( 语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide

5、 by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate. 9.parole( 言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure ) petence(语言能力 ): the ideal user s knowledge of the rules of his language 11.performan

6、ce(语 言 应 用 ):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky) traditional grammar and modern linguistics 1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive 2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer. 3. also in that i

7、t does not force languages into a latin-based framework. Functions of language. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 1 页，共 9 页1 2 1.the descriptive function. 2. the expressive function 3.the social function Chapter 2: Phonology音系学phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language; it is

8、concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world s languages9. The three branches of phonetics (1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学 ) (longest history) (2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acoustic phonetics ( 声学语音学）2. Speech organs: three important areas Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 - the throat; The oral cav

9、ity 口腔- the mouth; Nasal cavity 鼻腔- the nose. The principle source such modifications is the tongue. The tongue is the most flexible. International Phonetic Alphabet IPA:the basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound. Broad tra

10、nscription宽式音标 . The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. Narrow transcription窄式音标 The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics. Aspirated and unaspirated 1). phonology: 音系学 It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how the

11、se sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 4. Phone, phoneme, allophone A phone 音素 is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some dont, e .g. bI:t

12、 & bIt , spIt & spIt. A phoneme音位 is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in pIt, tIp and spIt. Allophones音 素变 体- the

13、 phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 2 页，共 9 页1 3 sequential rule,Sequential rule(序列规则 ): rule governing the combination of sounds in a particular language.Assimilation rule（同化规则） : rule assimilating one sound to anoth

14、er by copying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.Deletion rule （省略规则） : rule governing the deletion of a sound in a certain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling. 6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）Stress Word stress and sentence stress Tone 声调Tones are

15、 pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. English is not a tone language, but Chinese is. Intonation语调When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation. English has thr

16、ee types of intonation that are most frequently used: falling tone (matter of fact statement) rising tone (doubts or question) the fall-rise tone (implied message) the frise-fall tone (not frequently used) For instance, “That s not the book he wants.Chapter 3: Morphology1). Morphology形态学 : refers to

17、 the the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed 2). Morpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language. 3). Free morpheme自由词素 :a morpheme can be a word by itself. 4). Bound morpheme .黏着词素 : a morpheme that must be attached to another one. 5). Allmorp

18、hs词素变体 :the variant forms of a morpheme Chapter 4: Syntax Syntax 句法学 : Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. Word-level categories 1,Major lexical categories 2. minor lexical categories 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 3 页，共 9

19、页1 4 To determine a word s categorie,three critera are usually employed 1.meaning 2.inflection 3.distribution. Phrase :syntactic units that are built around a centain word category complementizers words which introduce the sentence complement complement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplem

20、entizers D-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head s subcategorization properties S-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results form appropriate transformation . Chapter 5: SemanticsSemantics: 语义学 can be simply defined as the study of meaning

21、. 1）The naming theory(命名论 ) Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one. It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.words are just names or labels for things. 2）The conceptualist view（意念论）It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refers to. In the i

22、nterpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. 3)Contextualism（语境论）Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized: Situational context: spatiotemporal situati

23、on Linguistic context: the probability of a words co-occurrence or collocation. For example, “black ” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation. 4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfi

24、eld Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.The story of Jack and Jill: Jill Jack S_r-s_R 3. Sense and reference Sense- - is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collecti

25、on of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. Reference -what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 4. Major sense relations Synonymy （同

26、义关系）Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 4 页，共 9 页1 5 complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rare Homonymy （同音 /同形异

27、义）Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, （1)Homophones（同音异义） : When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones. e.g. rain/reign. （2)Homographs(同形异义 ): When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. e.g. t

28、ear v. / tear n.（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义 ): When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms. e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n. Hyponymy （下义关系）Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a mo

29、re specific word. eg.superordinate: flower hyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily Antonymy （反义关系）the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning 1) Gradable antonyms （等级反义词 ）-there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short 2) Complemen

30、tary antonyms （互补反义词 ）-the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male- female 3) Relational opposites （ 关 系 反 义 词 ） -exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, emp

31、loyer-employee, give-receive, above-below 2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:1.grammatical meaning 2. semantic meaning, e.g. selectional restrictions. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules eg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others Predicatio

32、n analysis- - a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G. Leech).Chapter 6: Pragmatics 1). Pragmatics:语用学 the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 5 页，共 9 页1 6 Pragmatics and semantics are both linguist

33、ic studies of meaning. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmaticsis whether thecontext of use is considered in the study of meaning If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pra

34、gmatics. Austins new model of speech acts Utterance meaning:the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. Cooperative Princi

35、ple(CD):Paul Grice.His idea is that to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. 3）Principle of conversation (Paul Grice) The maxim of quantity （数量准则）Make your contribution as informative a

36、s required (for the current purpose of the exchange). （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。）Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. （不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更详尽。）he maxim of quality （质量准则）Do not say what you believe to be false.（不要说自己认为不真实的话。）Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.（

37、不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话。）The maxim of relation （关联准则）Be relevant. （说话要贴切。）The maxim of manner （方式准则）Avoid obscurity of expression. （避免晦涩的词语。）Avoid ambiguity. （避免歧义。）Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity) （说话要简短，避免累赘。）Be orderly. （说话要有条理。）Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics 社会语言学The sub-field of linguistics that studie

38、s the relation between language and society, between the use of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 6 页，共 9 页1 7 speech variety 言语变体 refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers

39、. Linguistic repertoire语言库 the totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.Hallidays register theory. according to Halliday (British), “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.”Register语域 the type of language wh

40、ich is selected as apprppriate to the type of situation is a Register field of discourse, 话语范围 It can be either technical or non-technical. tenor of discourse,话语意旨 It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question mode of discourse话语方式 It refers to the means of communication Five st

41、ages of formality Intimate CasualConsultativeFormalFrozen Bilingualism双语现象In some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of Bilingualism.diglossia Acco

42、rding to Ferguson (1959), refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism. chapter 9 culture文化 in a broad sense, reflects a total way of life of a people in a community. in a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs. the relation of language to

43、culture is that of part to whole. discourse communities 话语社会 the common ways in which members of the social group use similar language to meet their needs. linguistic relativity 语言相对性to put it simply, different language offer people different ways of expressing the world around, and so they think an

44、d speak differently an linguistic sign may simultaneously have a denotativ meanings.e,connotative meanings., iconic meanings.three forms of culture contact are identified: acculturation ,assimilation, amalgamation through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of c

45、ulture B,thus bringing about cultural diffusion chapter 10 language acquisition语言习得refers to a childs acquisition of his mother tongue. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 7 页，共 9 页1 8 three different theories concerning ho language is learned:the behaviorist, the innatist, the interation

46、ist. Chomsky proposed that human being are born with an innate ability known known as language acquisition device or o rLAD .later Chomsky referred this innate endowment as Universal Grammar. the interactionisist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the huma

47、n characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows. critical period Hypothesis 关键期假说 Eric Lenneberg argued that the LAD, like other biological function, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time a specific and limited time period for language acquisition. chap

48、ter 11 second language acquisition 第二语言习得 refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language interlanguage 中介语 was established as learners s independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second la

49、nguage, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the second language. among the three important characteristcs:systematicity, permeability, fossilization input hypothesis输入假说 : KrashenKrashen put forward that learners advance their language learning gr

50、adually by receiving comprehensible input chapter 12 neurlinguistics 神经语言学is the study of two related areas: language disorder and the relationship between the brain and language. it includes research into how the brain is structured and what function each part of the brain performs, how and in whic