Methodology老外关于写作和科研的ppt讲案.ppt

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1、Lecture topics: Purpose Different types of research Examples of method sections Common problems Language conventions in method section PurposeThe method section answers these two main questions:1. How was the data collected or generated?2. How was it analyzed?In other words, it shows your reader how

2、 you obtained your results.This section describes the steps you followed in conducting your study and the materials you used at each step.The method section is useful to readers who want to know how the methodology of your study may have influenced your results, or who are interested in replicating

3、or extending your study.But why do you need to explain how you obtained your results? We need to know how the data was obtained because the method affects the results. Knowing how the data was collected helps the reader evaluate the validity and reliability of your results, and the conclusions you d

4、raw from them. Often there are different methods that we can use to investigate a research problem. Your methodology should make clear the reasons why you chose a particular method or procedure. The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated in a way that is consistent with accept

5、ed practice in the field of study. The research methods must be appropriate to the objectives of the study. If you perform a case study of one commuter in order to investigate users perceptions of the efficiency of public transport in Shanghai, your method of giving questionnaire is obviously unsuit

6、ed to your objectives. The methodology should also discuss the problems that were anticipated and explain the steps taken to prevent them from occurring, and the problems that did occur and the ways their impact was minimized. In some cases, it is useful for other researchers to adapt or replicate y

7、our methodology, so often sufficient information is given to allow others to use the work. This is particularly the case when a new method had been developed, or an innovative adaptation used.DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH 1. analysis: classes of data are collected and studies conducted to discern patt

8、erns and formulate principles that might guide future action. 2. comparison: two or more existing situations are studied to determine their similarities and differences. 3. correlation-prediction: statistically significant correlation coefficients between and among a number of factors are sought and

9、 interpreted. 4. case study: the background, development, current conditions and environmental interactions of one or more individuals, groups, communities, businesses or institutions is observed, recorded and analyzed for stages of patterns in relation to internal and external influences. 5. evalua

10、tion: research to determine whether a program or project followed the prescribed procedures and achieved the stated outcomes. 6. theory construction: an attempt to find or describe principles that explain how things work the way they do. 7. trend analysis: predicting or forecasting the future direct

11、ion of events. 8. design-demonstration: new systems or programs are constructed, tested and evaluated. 9. survey-questionnaire: behaviors, beliefs and observations of specific groups are identified, reported and interpreted. 10. experiment: one or more variables are manipulated and the results analy

12、zed. The main part of this section is a description of the procedural steps used in your study and the materials employed at each step. The elements included and the order in which they are presented are not fixed. However, the list in the following box is conventional and provides you with your goo

13、d model. Overview of the experiment Population/Sample Location Restrictions/Limiting Conditions Sampling Techniques Procedures Materials Statistical TreatmentOur 3-year study of change in the ratio of serum urea or serum creatinine in Colorado wild bears began in the winter of 1981 and ended in the

14、fall of 1983. (overview: what , when and where is the research done) The investigation was performed in the Black Mesa-Crystal Creek area in west-central Colorado. The study area has three major vegetation bands: a mountain shrub community at lower elevations , large aspen forests at elevations betw

15、een 2330 and 3330m, and mixed forests of Engelmann spruce and fir at higher elevations.(Description of location and its condition)A total of 76 blood samples were obtained form 27 females and 21 males. (Subjects)The samples were cooled , serum was separated from red blood cells, and urea and creatin

16、ine concentrations were determined.(Techniques) Statistical analysis of changes in blood parameters w a s d o n e w i t h S c h e f f e s comparison(statistical treatment)Example: MethodLumped Parameter Model of Ice GrowthIn this section, governing equations are developed to model ice growth on the

17、heat exchanger plates. The model is intended to characterize the dynamics of the ice growth without the added problem of the detailed ice profiles. The presentation begins with mass and energy balances and concludes with the development of a model for the heat transfer between the water and the cool

18、ant.Example: MethodEnergy and Mass balanceThe heat exchanger, illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2, consists of two plates with attached tubes placed in parallel between supply and return headers. This type of heat exchanger was chosen because of its thermal characteristics, large surface area, ready availa

19、bility, and because the ice remains attached to the heat exchanger. To simplify the mode, no stratification of the water is allowed in the storage tank. A submerged pump is placed in the tank to keep the water well mixed. unnecessary explanation of basic proceduresRemember that you are not writing a

20、 how-to guide for beginners. Your readers will be people who have a level of expertise in your field and you can assume that they are familiar with basic assessments, laboratory procedures etc, so do not explain these in detail. problem blindness Most of us encounter some problems when collecting or

21、 generating our data. Do not ignore significant problems or pretend they did not occur. Often, recording how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting part of the methodology, and means you can also give a rationale for certain decisions, plus a realistic view of using the methods you chose.Ver

22、b Tense and MethodMost of your methodology section will be written in the past tense because you are recording what you have done. Notice too that it is usually written in the simple past.For example: 1) The sample was weighed.2) Fish seed were added to the pool.3) A thermometer recorded changes in

23、external temperature.Examples: Procedural Descriptions1)Surveys were sent to student health services at 180 colleges.2)The study was carried out on a marine laboratory research vessel.3)The generators supplied about 14,000 amps when fully operational.4)We used concrete B225 type, in accordance with

24、government regulations.5)The plants were seeded by hand into the beds to obtain between two to five plants per hill which were spaced at 3-ft intervals. For facts or information that are true and unlikely to change, write about them in the present tense. For example: Vietnam was chosen for this stud

25、y because it has a long coastline.Cornmeal was used to feed the fingerlings because it provides high nutritional content at a relatively low cost.AN EXAMPLE OF VERB TENSES AND VERB TENSE SHIFTS Look at the text below and see if you can decide why each highlighted tense has been used. Materials and M

26、ethodsFormulations and proximate compositions of the experimental diets are shown in Table 1. Brown fish meal was used to provide approximately 54% (dry matter basis) crude protein for the control diet 1. In diets 2-4 and 5, approximately 15-46% and 31% of the fish meal was substituted with a soy pr

27、otein concentrate (SPC), respectively, diets 2-4 were supplemented with the essential amino acids to simulate the composition of the control diet 1. The SPC used in this experiment was DANPRO-A, which contains a high level of crude protein and a low level of inhibitors, as a result of the treatments

28、 extraction and toasting.(The end)Information Include all information necessary for someone to replicate your procedure. Describe the procedure chronologically. Integrate the materials description with the procedural description.Language Use the past tense to describe the procedure Use the passive voice to depersonalize procedural descriptions.