语言学知识点+整理-集合知识点整理图(精华).doc

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1、YOUR LOGO原 创 文 档 请 勿 盗 版第 一 单 元什 么 是 语 言 学 ？Whatislinguistics?Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for“ c.orrect” behaviorModern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, andmainly spoken data.Linguistics is generally defined as the scientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnot

2、anyparticularTraditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on“ high ”writtenlanguage, but languages in general.2.Synchronic vs. diachronic共时性与历史性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic studyThe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study

3、In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.The scope of linguistics语言学研究的范畴Phonetics 语音学 Phonology音系学 Morphology形态学 Syntax句法学 Semantics语义学 Pragmatics语用学 Sociolinguistics社会语言学 Psycholinguistics心理语言学 Applied linguistics应用语言学3.Speech and writing口头语与书面语Phonetic

4、s语 音 学 ： thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticSpeech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:(1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution(2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing(3) speech is the form in which infants acqui

5、re their native languagecommunication led to the establishment of a branch of linguisticscalled phoneticsPhonology 音系学 :as linguistsbecameinterestedin howsoundsput together and used to convey meaning in communication ,they4.Language and parole语言与言语developed phonology.Morphologyanotherbranchofstudyre

6、latedtosoundscalledLanguage refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole refers to the realization of language in actual use形态学 :the studyof the way in which these symbolsare arranged form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.S

7、yntax 句法学 :the combination of these words to form permissible5.Competence and performance能力与运用Chomsky defines competence as the ideal userslanguage knowledge of the rusles ofPerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationsentences in languagesis governed by rules ,t

8、hestudy of theselinguistics studiesrules constitutes a major branch ofWhat is language?什么是语言？ Language is a system of arbitrarySemantics 语义学 :the study of meaning wasand became known as semanticsgraduallydevelopedvocal symbols used for human communicationPragmatics 语用学 :when the study of meaning is

9、conducted,not inCharacteristics of language:语言的特性isolaion,butin the contextof use,itbecomesanotherbranchofLanguage is a rule-governed system Language is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary (the fact different languages have differentlinguistic study called pragmaticsSociolinguistics社会语言学 :the study

10、 of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branchcalled sociolinguisticswords for the same objectis a goodillustrationof the arbitrarynature of language. This conventional nature of language is wellillustrated by a famous quotation from ShakespearePsy

11、cholinguistics心理语言学language to psychology: Psycholinguistics relates the study of s playand Juliet” :“ A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.Appliedlinguistics应用语言学 :findingsin linguisticstudiescanLanguage is used for human communicationoften be applied to the solution of such practical prob

12、lems as therecovery of speech ability.the study of such applications is generally known as applied linguisticsDesign features of language语言的甄别特征American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:1) arbitrariness武断性Otherrelatedbranchsincludeanthropologicallinguistics,and2) productivity创造性

13、linguistics,neurologicalcomputational linguistics.linguistics,mathematical3) duality二重性4) displacement移位性Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学 / 计算语言学。人类学/ 神经语言学/ 数理5) cultural transmission文化传递性1 .Prescriptive vs Descriptive规定性与描述性单元二 Two major media of communication: speech and writingDescr

14、iptive ： a linguisticactually use.studydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleThelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulin humancommunicationand are of interestto linguisticstudiesare the1精品资料精品学习资料第 1 页，共 10 页phonic medium of language.用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，但实际上，同一语音在不通的语音环境中的发音不尽相同，比如这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。P

15、it 和 spit 中的 /P/ 音发音就不一样。在宽式标音的基础上，再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环Phonetics 语音学 : is defined as the study of the phonic medium oflanguage;it is concernedwithall the soundsthatoccurinthe境下不同发音的标音法叫做窄式标音法。Classification of English speech sounds constantsworld s language.Three branchesof phonetics:英语语音的分类vowels an

16、darticulatoryphonetics发音语音学（ mosthighlydeveloped ） , auditoryphonetics听觉语音学andacoustic phonetics声学语音学The basic difference between a vowel and a constant is that in theArticulation phonetics(发音语音学 ):How a speaker uses his speechpronunciationof the formerthe air thatcomesfrom thelungsorgans articulate

17、 the sounds. Auditoryphonetics （听觉语音学）sounds.:Howa hearerperceivesthemeets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, orthe mouth, while in that of the latter it is obstructed in one way or another .Consonants: the sounds in the production of whichAcoustic( 声学语音学） :How the sounds are t

18、ransmitter.Organs of speech发音器官The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in threeimportant areas or cavities:thereisan obstructionofthe airsteam atsomepointof the vocal tract.The pharyngeal cavity咽腔 -the throatVowels:thesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoThe oral cavityThe nasal cavity口腔

19、-the mouth鼻腔 -the nosearticulators come very close together and the airVibration of the vocal cords (声带 ) results ina quality of speechstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutsounds called“ voi浊cin音g ， ”wh ich is a feature of all vowels元音obstruction.and some consonants辅音。单词补充：01) velum: The soft pala

20、te.Classification of English constants软腭Classificationintwoways:intermsofmannerof02) uvula: A small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from the center ofthe soft palate.3) larynx: n.4) vocal cord:小舌，悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块喉声带articulation :stops ,fricatives, affricates ,nasals ,liquids ,glides.:int

21、ermsofplaceof05) membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separatingarticulation:bilabial,labiodental,dental,alveolar,palatal,velar,glottal.or connecting regions, structures, or organs of an animal or a plant.的组织层，覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域、结构或动植物器官膜薄而柔软6) the soft palate:7) the hard pa

22、late:8) the teeth ridge:软腭硬腭 齿龈9) alveolus: A tooth socket in the jawbone10) the teeth:牙齿牙槽颚骨处的牙床11) the lips:上下唇12) blade of tongue:13) back of tongue:舌面舌根14) pharyngeal cavity:咽腔15) nasal cavity:鼻腔16) velar: Articulatedwith the back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate, as (g) in good an

23、d (k) in cup.软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的，如在good 中的(g) 以及在 cup 中的 (k)17) the tip of the tongue:18) the upper front teeth:19) the roof of the mouth:舌尖上齿 上颚20) the lower lip:下唇International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)The vowels (monophthongs and diphthongs)音）元音（单元音 &双元The constants辅音Broadtranscription:transcrip

24、tionwithletter-symbolsonly.(indictionaries and teaching textbooks)用一个符号来表示一个语音的标音方式叫做宽式标音法，这种音标法常见于词典和教科书。Classification of English vowels:the position of the tongue in the mouth 3 groups:front,central,and back)舌位高低 (classification ofNarrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics.:theopenne

25、ssofthemouth, 口 的张 开 程度 (classificationof42精品资料精品学习资料第 2 页，共 10 页groups:closeopen vowels)vowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowels,andcontrast.可以出现在不同语音组合中的同一为止，产生意义差别。:the shape of the lips园唇与否 (rounded or not rounded)/P/ and /Ph/ these two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementa

26、ry distribution.When two different forms are identical in every way except for onesound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the:lengthofthevowels元 音 的 长 度 (longvowelsandshortvowels,corresponding to the distinction of tense and lax vowels)two words are said to form a minimal pair.

27、pen and ben最小对立对指出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合。Some rules in phonology几条音系规则：blik, klib , bilk, kilb is possible. But lbki,Sequential rules序列规则ilbk, bkil , ilkb not possible.Assimilationrules同化规则（ one sound to another by “ copying a ” feature of a sequential phoneme, thus make the two phones similar）De

28、letionrule省略规则（ it tell us when a sound is to be deletedalthough it is orthographically represented. ）Sign, design, there is nog sound./Signature, designation the g is pronounced./ Delete a g when it occurs before a final nasal constant.Suprasegmental features: the phonemic features that occur above

29、the level of the segments .切分即单音层面以上的音系特征。Phonology and phonetics音系学和语音学both are the studies of speech sounds.the main suprasegmental features are: stress, tone, intonation.切分特征 重音，声调，语调超Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speechsounds used in all human languages.第三单元 Morph

30、ologyis a branchof grammarwhichinternalstructureofwordsandtherules bywhichstudiesthe语音学研究的是人类所有语言的语音，旨在对语音进行描述和分类。wordsarePhonologyis interestedin the systemof soundsof a particularformed.Itisdividedintotwosub-branches:inflectionallanguage;it aims to discoverhow speech sounds in a languagemorphology

31、 and lexical or derivational morphology.形态学研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则，态学两大分支有屈折形态学和词汇形form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaningin linguistic communication.音系学研究的重点是特定语言的语音体系，语音表达意义作用。Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language.小的意义单位语素：语言最Phone ，phoneme and allophone语音，音位，音位变体Phones,

32、which can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguishmeaning.The different which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Free Morpheme: A free morph

33、eme is one that can stand by itself.(independent)Freemorphemes:areindependentunitsofmeaning and can be used freely all by themselves. For example: boy.Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand byitself. 粘 着 语 素 必 须 和 其 他 语 素 结 合 成 单 词 cannotbe usedindependentlybut have to be combined

34、with othermorphemes,Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair音位对立，互补分布，最小对立对either free or bound, to form a word.Roots: A root is often seen as a part of a word, it can never standrope and robe that /P/ and /b/ can occur in the same environmentsby itselfalthoughitbearsclear, de

35、finitemeaning;itmustbeandtheydistinguishmeaning;thereforetheyarein phonemiccombined with another root or an affix to form a word. Such roots3精品资料精品学习资料第 3 页，共 10 页are numerous in English for example: geo-“ bears the meaning ofCompounding:is the formationof new wordsby joiningtwo or“ the earth“ abran

36、chof” . When it combines with another root - ology” meangin“morestems.Compoundingispopularandimportantwayoflearningw”e , got the word“ geology wh”ic hmeans s structureformingnewwordsin English.In termsof morphemicanalysis,“ the study of the earthderivation can be viewed ad the addition of affixes to

37、 stems to formnewwords,andcompoundingthecombinationoftwoorBound Morpheme includes two types: (1) root (2)Affix(词缀 )morphemes): relationsorsometimes more than two words to create new words.1)Inflectionalaffixes( 屈 折 词 缀 )(inflectionalInflectionalaffixes:manifestvariousgrammaticalFeatures of compounds

38、grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.1.orthographically(拼写特征 ): a compound can be written as oneaffixesattachedtotheendof wordstoindicategrammaticalwith or without a hyphen, or as two separate words. For example: armchair , follow-up, thunder bird.2. syntactically( 句法特征 ):

39、the part of speech of the compound isgenerally determined by the part of speech of the second element. For example: ice-cold (adj.) greenhouse (noun).3. sematically （语意特征） : the meaningof a compoundis oftenidiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of the meanings of its components. F

40、or example: a blackleg is not a leg that is black, it means cheater4. phonetically（语音特征） : the stress of a compound always falls onrelationships are inflectional2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀 ) Derivational affixes: are added toan existing form to create a word. Such a way of word-formation is called d

41、erivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative.A) prefix: A prefix comes before words.B)suffix ： that is added to the stem；they modify the meaning ofthe original word and in many cases change its part of speech.Root and stem （词根和词干） ( 本书未涉及 )1) Root 2) StemThe differences bet

42、ween root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.the firststress.element,whilethe secondelementreceivessecondary单元四 Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentencestructure of language.As a majorcomponentAstemisthesur

43、pluspartafterthecuttingofinflectionalof grammar , syntaxconsists ofa set ofmorpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Individualistic Undesirables Individualist (stem) undesirable (stem) Individual (stem) desirable (stem) dividual (stem) desi

44、re (root, stem)divide(root, stem)abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words toform grammatical sentences.句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统。Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicatewhich contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.句子通常由主语和谓语两大部分构成。词组构成。谓语通常由限定动词或动词The

45、 referring expression is grammatically called subject.主语是指句子中所被指称的对象。Subject all language have ways of referring toAffixation词缀法（ Derivation 派生法）：addingderivational affixes to stem.word-formationorsome entity, such as a person , a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, this referring expression is grammatically called su