2022年胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点 .pdf

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1、语言学教程重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）； ；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。第三章语音学发音

2、器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。第四章音位学音位理论； 最小对立体； 自由变异； 互补分布； 语音的相似性； 区别性特征； 超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，

3、数，格） ；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为） ；合作原则。1. 语言的普遍特征：精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 1

4、 页，共 8 页任意性 arbitrariness 双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构多产性 productivity 移位性 displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission 2。语言的功能：传达信息功能informative 人济功能： interpersonal 行事功能： Performative 表情功能： Emotive 寒暄功能： Phatic 娱乐功能recreatinal 元语言功能metalingual 3. 语言学 linguistics ：包括六个分支语音学 Phonetics 音位学phonol

5、ogy 形态学Morphology 句法学syntax 语义学semantics 语用学pragmatics 4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure 提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky 提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance 1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displ

6、acement. one of the unique properties of language: a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain language b. we can use both shu and tree to describe the same thing. c. we can u se language to refer to something not present d. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before. 2.Wh

7、at is the most important function of language? a. interpersonal b. phatic c. informative d.metallingual 3.The function of the sentence A nice day, isnt it ?is _ a informative b. phatic c. directive d. performative 4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by _ a saussure b. ha

8、lliday 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 2 页，共 8 页c. chomsky d. the prague school 5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parole? a. saussure b. chomsky c. halliday d anomymous 第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords 和三个回声腔组成2.辅音 consonant： there is an obstruction of the air stre

9、am at some point of the vocal tract. 3.辅音的发音方式爆破音complete obstruction 鼻音nasals 破裂音plosives 部分阻塞辅音partial obstruction 擦音fricatives 破擦音affricates 等4.辅音清浊特征voicing 辅音的送气特征aspiration 5.元音 vowel 分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6 双元音diphthongs,有元音过渡vowel glides 1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies _. a. the physical

10、 properties of the sounds produced in speech b. the perception of sounds c. the combination of sounds d. the production of sounds 2. The distinction between vowel s and consonants lies in _ a. the place of articulation b.the obstruction f airstream c. the position of the tongue d. the shape of the l

11、ips 3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k t a. voiceless b. spread c.voiced d.nasal 4. What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak? a. voicing b. aspiration c.roundness d. nasality 5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English? a. voicing

12、精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 3 页，共 8 页b.nasal c. approximation d. aspiration 6.The phonological features of the consonant k are _ a. voiced stop b. voiceless stop c. voiced fricative d. voiceless fricative 7.p is divverent from k in _ a. the manner of articulation b. the shape of t

13、he lips c. the vibration of the vocal cords d.the palce of articualtion 8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in _ a. aspiration b.nasality c. obstruction d. voicing 第三节音位学phonology 1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音； 音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。2.音位 phoneme：最小语音单位3.音位变体allop

14、hones:读音差别4.对比性分布：如果两个音段出现在同一个语音环境中，而且产生了两个不同的单词，5.互补性分布；如果两个基本相似的音段绝不会出现在相同的语音环境中，那么它们之间就是互补性分布的关系，如送气p绝不会出现在s之后，不送气的p 绝不会出现在词首6.音节 syllable，分为节首onset，节峰 peak，节尾 coda 7.辅音群 :一般作为音节节首的辅音群不能超过三个福音，节尾不能超过4 个8.最小语音对minimal pairs I. Introduction 1. What is Language Language is a system of arbitrary voca

15、l symbols used for human communication. 2. What is Linguistics( 语言学 ) Linguistics is the scientific study of language. 3.Some Basic Distinctions( 区分 ) in Linguistics 3.1 Speech and Writing One general principle( 原则 ) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives languag

16、e new scope(范畴 ) and uses that speech does not have. 3.2 Descriptive( 描述性 ) or Prescriptive( 说明性 ) A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for correct behavior. 3.3 Synchronic( 共时 ) and Diachronic( 历时 ) Studies T

17、he description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 4 页，共 8 页language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. 3.4 Langue(语言 ) and Parole(言语 ) This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De S

18、aussure ( 索绪尔） early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的 ) language, or realization of langue. 3.5 Competence(能力 )and Performance(行为 ) Competence is the ideal language users knowledge of

19、 the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances( 发声 ). 4. The Scope of Linguistics General linguistics is the study of language as a whole. Phonetics(语音学 ) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides m

20、ethods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology( 音韵学 ) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages. Morphology( 词法 ) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words. Syntax(句法 ) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules

21、 governing the combination of words into sentences. Semantics(语义学 ) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language. Applied linguistics( 应用语言学 ) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and so

22、ciety. Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind. Historical Linguistics( 历史语言学 ) is the study of language changes. Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学 ) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the

23、 cultural patterns and beliefs of man. Neurolinguistics( 神经语言学 ) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings. Mathematical linguistics( 数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics. Computational linguisti

24、cs( 计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts are applied, often with the aid of a computer. II. Phonetics(语音学）1. scope of phonetics Speech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics: Articulatory phonetics(

25、发音语音学）we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(协调）in the process. Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学） we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节）by the ear, the auditory nerve(神经）and the br

26、ain. Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（传送）between mouth and ear. 2. The vocal organs The vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,(气流发生器官）the producer of voice （声音发生器官）and the resonating cavitie

27、s.（声音共振器官）精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 5 页，共 8 页3. Consonants(辅音）Places of articulation( 发音部位） : bilabial,( 双唇） Labiodentals,（唇齿） dental, （齿） alveolar,（齿龈）retroflex,（卷舌）palate-alveolar,（上齿龈） palatal,（上颚）velar,（软腭）uvular,（小舌）glottal( 声门）Manners of articulation: plosive, （暴破）nasal, （

28、 鼻音） trill,（颤音） lateral,（边音） fricative,（摩擦）approximant, （近似音）affricate（破擦）4. Vowels (元音）The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded) III. Phonology

29、 （音韵学）1. phonemes(音素）：a distinctive(有区别的）sound in a language. 2. Allophones( 音位变体）：The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme. 3. Minimal pairs( 最小对立体） ： word forms which differ from each other only by one sound. 4. Free variation (自由变异）：If two sounds occurring in the same environment

30、( 环境） , they does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word. 5. Complementary distribution( 补充分类） ： Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment. 6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位）： the stud

31、y of phonological properties( 性质）of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable( 音节） ，stress, （重音）word stress, sentence stress. pitch （音调） and intonation （语调） . IV. Morphology （词法）1. inflection( 构 形 法 ） ： the grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折词缀）2.

32、 Word-formation( 构词）： the processes( 过程） of word variations signaling lexical relationships.（表明词法关系）They are compound( 合成） and derivation (派生） . 3. Morpheme( 词素） ： the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content. 4. Allomorph( 同质异象变体） ： some morphemes have considerable vari

33、ation, for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms. 5. Types of morphemes: They are roots,(词根）affix （词缀）and stem（词干） . 6. Lexicon( 语言词汇）：in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary. 7. Closed-class words(封闭性） and open-class words(开放性）：the former whose membership is fixed or limited

34、 and the latter whose membership is in principle(实际上）indefinite or unlimited. 8. Word class(词性） ：It displays a wider range of more precisely defined classes. 9. Lexeme(词位）：the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units. 10. Idiom( 习语，成语） ： Mo

35、st phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true for a sequence of words(词序）which is semantically （语义上）and often syntactically( 句法上）restricted.（限制）11. Collocation( 搭配）： the habitual( 习惯的） co-occurrences （同时出现） of individual lexical items. V. Syntax (句法）1. Positional relation or word order（词序）： t

36、he sequential(顺序） arrangement of words in a language. 2. Construction or constituent ( 句子结构）： the overall process of internal ( 内部） organization of 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 6 页，共 8 页a grammatical unit . 3. Syntactic function( 句法功能）： the relationship between a linguistic form an

37、d other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. The names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers,( 修饰语）complements（补语） , etc. 4. Category(范畴） ：It refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phras

38、e, verb phrase, etc. The categories of the noun include number, gender, case and countability. 5. Phrase: a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause. 6. Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it

39、is included in a larger sentence. 7. Sentence: It is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought. VI. Semantics 1. Conceptualism or mentalism ( 概念主义）：Following F. De Saussure( 索学尔） s sign theory, the linguistic sign is said to consist of a signifier （所指） and signified （被指） , i.e.,

40、 a sound image and a concept, liked by a psychological （心理的）associative bond. （相关联系）2. Mechanism(机械主义）：Some linguists, Bloomfield,( 布鲁费尔德）for example, turned to science to counter（反） -act the precious theories and this leads to what call the mechanistic approach（方法） . The nature of this theory has n

41、othing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena.（智力现象）3. Contextualism （语境主义） ： It is based on the presumption( 假定）that one can derive meaning from or reduce it to observable context. 4. Behaviorism ( 行为主义）： Behaviorists attempt to define ( 定义）the meaning of a language form as the situati

42、on(情景）in which the speaker utters（说话）it and the response（反应）it calls forth in the hearer. 5. functionalism ( 功能主义）：functionalists as represented (代表） by the Prague school（布拉格学派） linguists and neo-Firthian （新弗斯） linguists, approach the problem from an entirely new orientation（方法） . They argue（争辩）that

43、 meaning could only be interpreted （解释）from its use or function in social life. 6. Sense relationships: While reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc., and the non-linguistic world of experience, sense relates to the complex system of relationship

44、s that hold between the linguistic elements themselves. They include synonymy(同义词）, antonym(反义词）,hyponymy( 下层次）Polysemy(一词多义）and Homonymy (同音异义词）7. Semantic analysis: It includes 1) componential （成分） analysis which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.(意义成分） 2) pr

45、edication ( 表述） analysis in which the meaning of a sentence is not merely the sum of the meanings of the words which compose it. 3) relational components in which the semantic analysis of some words presents a complicated picture, because they show relations between two and perhaps more terms. VII.

46、Language variation ( 语言变化）1. Lexical change( 词汇的变化） ：changes in lexis. 2. Invention: ( 新造词） new entities. 3. Compounding合成词） New words are sometimes constructed by combining two old words. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 7 页，共 8 页4. Blending: ( 混合词）：It is a relatively complex form of

47、compounding, in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the initial parts of the two roots. 5. Abbreviation or clipping:(缩写） A new word is created by cutting the final part or cutting the initial part. 6. acronym:

48、(取首字母的缩写词） It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified ( 修饰）headword. 7. metanalysis:(再分化） It refers to a process through which a division is made where there were note before. 8. Back-formation:( 逆构词）It refers to an abnormal( 非正常）type of word-fo

49、rmation where a shorter word is derived by deleting( 去掉）an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language. 9. Analogical creation:( 类比造词） It can account for （说明）the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation( 结合）of some English verbs. 10. Borrowing （借用）：E

50、nglish in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. 11. Phonological change( 音变）：It is related to language variation in the phonological system of language. It includes loss,( 省音）addition,（加音）assimilation, （ 同化） dissimilation. （异化）12. Grammatical ch