2022年简明语言学概论知识点集总 .pdf

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1、名师精编优秀资料语言学第一章1. Linguistics is generally known as a systematic and scientific study of language. 2. The study of language as a whole is what we call general linguistics which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models, and methods applicable in any linguistic study. 3. There are

2、five core areas or main branches of linguistics, namely, phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics. 4. Phonetics refers to the study of the nature, production, and perception of speech sounds. 5. Phonology is the study of the sound systems of individual languages and of the nature of su

3、ch systems generally. 6. Morphology concerns the internal structure of words and interrelationships among words. And it studies the minimal units of meaningmorphemes and word formation rules. 7. Syntax is the study of grammatical relations between words and other units within the sentence. 8. Semant

4、ics refers to the study of meaning of language. 9. Pragmatics (语用学 ) is also concerned with the study of meaning and emphasizes the study of meaning in context. 10Sociolinguistics refers to the study of language in relation to society. 11. Psycholinguistics refers to the study of language in or from

5、 the viewpoint of psychology. 12. Cognitive linguistics（认知语言学）emphasizes the continuity of language with the workings of the mind in general and seeks to ground a theory of language in accounts of cognition. 13. If a linguistic study describes and analyses the language people actually use, it is sai

6、d to be descriptive. 14. If a linguistic study aims to prescribe what is judged to be correct, it is said to be prescriptive. 15. The synchronic study of a language means the description of a particular “ state ”of that language, and an account of its structure either at present or at some specific

7、moment in the past, considered in abstraction from its history. 16. Diachronic study of a language means the description of its historical development “through time”. 17. Langue refers to the linguistic competence of the speaker, i.e. the abstract linguistic systems shared by all members of a speech

8、 community. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 1 页，共 9 页名师精编优秀资料18. Parole refers to the phenomena or data of linguistics, i.e. the realization of language in use. 19. Competence refers to a language user s underlying knowledge about the system of rules. 20. Performance refers to the act

9、ual use of language in concrete situations. 21. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 22. Design features: a number of defining properties that distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 23. Arbitrariness means that there is no logical

10、 connection between linguistic form and its corresponding meaning. 24. Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structure, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 25. Creativ

11、ity refers to the creative power of language. The power or resourcefulness of human language is due to its property of duality and its recursiveness. 26. Displacement means that human language can talk about objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment communication. 27. Cultural

12、 transmission refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. 第二章 音系学1. Pharyngeal cavity: glottis Oral cavity: tongue, teeth, lips, alveolar ridge, hard palate, velum, uvular Nasal cavity 2. In phonetics, the tongue is divided into five parts: the

13、tip, the blade, the front, the back, and the root. 3. The majority of sounds used in languages of the world are produced by pulmonic egressive airstream mechanism. 4. /p/, /t/, /k/, /s/, /s/-plural, /t/-past-tense are voiceless sounds; /z/-plural, /d/-past-tense are voiced sounds. 5. Broad transcrip

14、tion: it is a kind of phonetic transcription with letter-symbols only. The transcription with letter-symbol together with diacritics is what we call narrow transcription. 6. Differences between consonants and vowels: (1) A consonant is produced with a partial or complete air flow obstruction in the

15、oral 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 2 页，共 9 页名师精编优秀资料cavity, while a vowel is produced without such an obstruction. (2) All the vowels in English are oral, but some of the consonants are oral and some are nasal. (3) All vowels are voiced, but consonants can be voiced or voiceless. 7.

16、 Coarticulation(协同发音 ) refers to simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units. 8. A phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment, which refers to the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication. 9. A phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit, it is a unit o

17、f distinctive value. It is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. 10. aspirated 送气的 unaspirated 不送气的unreleased 没有完全送气的/p/ is a phoneme in the English sound system, and it can be realized differently as aspirated and unaspirated in different contexts. 11. The differ

18、ent phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones of that phoneme. (音位变体 : 无意义变化 ) 12. Phonemic contrast( 音位对立 )：If phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast. /p/ and /b/ in /pit/ and /bit/ (意义有

19、变化 ) 13. Complementary Distribution (互补分布 )：If they are allophones of the same phoneme, they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution. So the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution. 14. Minimal Pair (最小对立体 )：When two different forms are identical in ever

20、y way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. 15. /p/ /b/ /t/ /k/ /d/ /g/ are phonemes in English. All these sound combinations together constitute a minimal set. /i:/ /i/ /e/ /u:/ /ei/ /ai/ /au/ are phon

21、emes. 16. Phonological Rules: (1) AB/C A changes to B under the condition C. (2) AB/_C (3) AB/C_ Nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are typical phonological processes that can be represented by the following rules 17. Suprasegmental features (超分段特点 ) refer to those aspects of speech that

22、involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation. 18. syllable () = onset+nucleus+coda CV(C) 19. The maximal onset principle: English permits at most three consonants to form an onset. According to the maximal onset principle,

23、the maximal sequence that occurs at the beginning of a word in English is a three consonant cluster that begins with “ s” . The second could be any of the three voiceless stops p, t, or k, and the third consonant 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 3 页，共 9 页名师精编优秀资料could be any of the thr

24、ee approximants l, r, or w. 20. Pitch, length, and loudness are components of stress. In English, there are three levels of stress are recognized. They are primary, secondary, and unstressed. 第三章 词法学1. The open-class words are those belonging to the major part of speech classes (nouns, verbs, adject

25、ives, and adverbs), which in any language tend to be large and “ open-ended ” . Closed-class words are those belonging to grammatical, or function classes (such is articles, prepositions, conjunctions), which in any language tend to include a small number of fixed elements. 2. Morphemes are the mini

26、mal units of word building in a language; they cannot be broken down any further into recognizable or meaningful parts. 3. Morphemes are categorized into two classes: free morphemes and bound morphemes. 4. A free morpheme can stand alone as an independent word in a phrase, such as the word table in

27、John sat at the table. 5. A bound morpheme cannot stand alone but have to be attached to another morpheme. 6. Certain bound morphemes are known as affixes. The morphemes that can only occur before other morphemes are called prefixes, and after, suffixes. 7. The morpheme to which an affix is attached

28、 is the base (or stem) morpheme and it can free or bound. 8. The morphemes such as en, -able, and ize, etc. are called derivational morphemes, as when they are conjoined with morphemes, a new word is derived. ( 派生词素：后缀一般改变词性前缀一般不改变词性 ) 9. There are also some bound morphemes which are, for most part,

29、 grammatical markers, designating such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. They are termed as inflectional morphemes. ( 曲折词素 ) Such as s, -ed, -ing verb endings 10. Words fall into two general classes, simple and comlex. 11. The creation of new words (1) Coinage (创造) Coinage refers to the pro

30、cess in which previously nonexistent words keep entering a language. (2) Blending Blending refers to the new words that are formed from existing ones by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words. (3) Clipping Cl

31、ippings refer to “ clipped”abbreviations such as ad for advertisement, fax for facsimile, etc. (cutting the final part, cutting the initial part, cutting both the initial and final parts) There are also orthographic abbreviations such as Dr. for doctor, where the pronunciation remains the same. (4)

32、Acronyms (词首字母缩略词 ) Acronym refers to a word that is made up from the first letters of the name of an 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 4 页，共 9 页名师精编优秀资料organization. (5) Back-formation (逆构词法）Back-formation refers to the very type of word-formation where a new word is formed by subtract

33、ing or deleting an affix thought to be part of the word. It is also called inverse derivation. (6) Borrowing Direct borrowing: words are borrowed directly from another language. Indirect borrowing: it occurs when an expression in one language is translated literally into another language. (7) Semant

34、ic change ( 语义改变 ) Change in part of speech; metaphorical extension; broadening; narrowing; semantic shift; reversal. (8) Changing in part of speech Grammatical category of words can be changed through time. (9) Metaphorical extension When a language does not have the right expressions for certain p

35、urposes, speakers often take an existing meaning and extend it in a recognizable way. Though a new word is not created as such, a new usage has entered the vocabulary. (ship, navigation, sailing, floating, captain) (10) Broadening Broadening refers to another way a meaning of a word can be extended

36、besides metaphorical extension. (11) Narrowing Conversely, the meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense. (12) Meaning shift (13) Reversals Reversals of meaning can occur when words are used to mean the opposite of their original meaning. (14) Compounds A compound refers to

37、 those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, laptop, etc. ( 词性一般由后面的词决定) Generally speaking, the part of speech of the whole compound is the same as the part of speech of the rightmost member

38、of the compound, which is termed as the head of the compound. 第四章 句法学1. A description of the grammar of any natural language, therefore, requires us to recognize that all words in that language belong to a restricted set of grammatical categories. In English, noun, verb, adjective, and adverb, etc.

39、are different categories of words as each category shares a set of common grammatical properties. The grammatical categories are morphological and syntactic. 2. Lexical categories refer to words traditionally termed as contentives, or content words. They include noun, verb, preposition, adjective, a

40、nd adverb. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 5 页，共 9 页名师精编优秀资料3. Functional categories, or function words, functors, refer to words that serve primarily to carry information about the grammatical function of particular types of expressions within the sentence. They include particle (小品词

41、 ), auxiliary ( 助动词 ), determiner (限定词 ), pronoun (代词), and complementizer ( 补足语 ). 4. Contentives usually have obvious descriptive content. Functors have no descriptive content, but functional content. 5. According to Andrew Radford, if a word has an antonym, it is a contentive. 6. Determiner refer

42、s to a word like a/the/this/that which is typically used to modify a noun, but which has no descriptive content of its own. There are two kinds of determiners, quantifying determiners and referential determiners. Quantifying determiners are determiners like all/some which denote quantity, and refere

43、ntial determiners are determiners like the/this/that/my which are used to introduce referring expressions. (det) 7. Determiners can not only be used to modify a noun expression, but can also be used on their own. Such determiners are traditionally categorized as pronouns. Pronominal determiners. 8.

44、Auxiliary refers to items such as will/would/can/could/shall/may/might/must/ought. (AUX) 9. Auxiliary differs from verbs in a number of ways. P61 10. Infinitive particle behaves like functors such as an auxiliary. (I) 11. A complementizer refers to a special kind of word which is used to introduce c

45、omplement clauses. (finite clause & infinite clause) 12. Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, is the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituentsword groups, which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the

46、ultimate constituents are reached. 13. IC analysis emphasizes the function of the intermediate level word group, seeing a hierarchical structure ( 纵向结构 ) of the sentence as well. Advantages: Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, and ambiguities, if an

47、y, will be revealed. Problems: (1) Problems exist as to the segmentation of a construction, i.e. dividing a sentence into its constituent elements. According to IC analysis, the division is in binary, but it is not always possible. (2) Constructions with discontinuous constituent pose technical prob

48、lems for tree diagrams in IC analysis. 14. Phrase structure grammar is part of the early standard transformational generative grammar (TG grammar). In its classic form, a transformational grammar has a phrase structure grammar in its base component. It is a grammar that assigns to a sentence a type

49、of structure that can be represented by a single phrase structure tree. (a) SNP +AUX+VP (b) NPDET+(adj)+NP+(CP)+(PP) (c) VPV+NP+PP (d) CPCOMP +S The phrase structure can generate a potentially infinite number of noun phrases. PPP+NP 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 6 页，共 9 页名师精编优秀资料15.

50、 Embedding is one of the ways in which a finite set of rules can generate an infinite number of set of structures. VPV+S 16. Right branching: prepositional phrase is located on the right branch of a noun phrase, which is itself on the extreme right branch of a PP. Structures like this general sort a