2022年法律英语词汇辨析 .pdf

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1、【转帖】常见常用法律英语词汇笺注AKA 也即是，也称为Also known as. Used to list aliases or another name, or another spelling of a name used by a person. 【注】“ 也称为，也即是” 。通常用来列举一个人的别名、化名或其他名字及另外的拼写法。Common Law 普通法Laws that develop through case decisions by judges. Not enacted by legislative bodies. common law, system of law th

2、at prevails in England and in countries colonized by England. The name is derived from the medieval theory that the law administered by the kings courts represented the common custom of the realm, as opposed to the custom of local jurisdiction that was applied in local or manorial courts. In its ear

3、ly development common law was largely a product of three English courtsKings Bench, Exchequer, and the Court of Common Pleaswhich competed successfully against other courts for jurisdiction and developed a distinctive body of doctrine. The term “common law” is also used to mean the traditional, prec

4、edent-based element in the law of any common-law jurisdiction, as opposed to its statutory law or legislation, and also to signify that part of the legal system that did not develop out of equity, maritime law, or other special branches of practice. 【注】普通法指的是由法官的案例判决发展而来的法律，它不同于立法机关颁布的法律。笺 普通法系是当今世界

5、两大法系之一。关于普通法的历史基础和传统在英国法律史学家S F C 密尔松的普通法的历史基础和美国法理学家卡尔 N 卢埃林的普通法的传统中已经说得十分清楚，而对于普通法之所以有如此强大的生命力的根源以及普通法的精神，美国社会法学学派创始人、美国哈佛大学法学院院长罗斯科 庞德（ Roscoe Pound ）则在其普通法的精神一书中进行了精辟的阐述。Court of Equity 衡平法院Courts of equity were common law courts but had their own principles (e.g., clean hands doctrine) and thei

6、r own unique remedies (e.g., injunction, specific performance). Actions were brought either equitably in chancery or legally at law. Courts which are guided primarily by equitable doctrine are said to be courts of equity. Thus, a bankruptcy court is a court of equity. 【注】衡平法院（ Court of Equity ），又称大法

7、官法院（Court of Chancery）。 1474 年，大法官首次以自己的名义发布命令，标志着完全独立的衡平法院正式诞生。衡平法院，也叫良心法院（Court of Conscience）。法官凭良心判案。衡平法院不实行陪审制，由大法官独自进行审理，自由裁量的余地很大，每个法官的判决也有很大的差别。因此有人说衡平法院的判决是由大法官脚的长短来决定的。衡平法官处理案件主要依据“ 衡平与良心 ” 的原则（ the rules of equity and good 名师资料总结 - - -精品资料欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 名师精心整理 -

8、- - - - - - 第 1 页，共 9 页 - - - - - - - - - conscience ），以后逐渐开始适用前衡平法官所创设的先例的原则，在衡平法院管辖的案件中，大量属于欺诈案件。衡平法院虽然已经消亡，但衡平法的精神依然活着，衡平法已经成为英美法律研究与实务的不竭的源泉。在反避税中，美国税务局与法院越来越多地借助于衡平法的原理原则来防止税收规避，最常用的是“ 实质高于形式 ” （Substance over Form）规则，最早在Gregory v. Helvering一案中所运用，效果很好，也有相当的说服力。此外，还运用“ 虚假交易规则 ” （Sham Transactio

9、n Doctrine）等。Emotional distress 精神损害、情感伤害an increasingly popular basis for a claim of damages in lawsuits for injury due to the negligence or intentional acts of another. Originally damages for emotional distress were only awardable in conjunction with damages for actual physical harm. Recently cour

10、ts in many states, including New York and California, have recognized a right to an award of money damages for emotional distress without physical injury or contact. In sexual harassment claims, emotional distress can be the major, or even only, harmful result. In most jurisdictions, emotional distr

11、ess cannot be claimed for breach of contract or other business activity, but can be alleged in cases of libel and slander. Evidentiary problems include the fact that such distress is easily feigned or exaggerated, and professional testimony by a therapist or psychiatrist may be required to validate

12、the existence and depth of the distress and place a dollar value upon it. 【注】Emotional distress（精神损害），这一概念在理论上存在广义和狭义两种学说。广义学说认为精神损害，包括精神痛苦与精神利益的损失。精神痛苦主要指自然人因人格权受到侵害而遭受的生理、心理上的痛苦，导致自然人的精神活动出现障碍；或使人产生愤怒、绝望、恐惧、焦虑、不安等不良情绪。精神利益的损失是指自然人和法人的人身利益(包括人格利益和身份利益)遭受侵害。如名誉受到毁损、荣誉权受到侵害等。狭义学说认为精神损害，就是指自然人因其人身权受到侵

13、害而遭受的生理上、心理上的损害。在美国的侵权行为法中，导致精神痛苦（infliction of Mental Distress）分为两种，一种是故意的和轻率的导致他人精神痛苦 （intentional infliction of Mental Distress）另一种是过失的导致他人精神痛苦（Negligent infliction of Mental Distress）。构成故意精神损害的要件是：第一，行为人的行为是极端的和粗暴的；第二，伤害是故意的； 第三，实际发生的精神损害是严重的。什么是严重的精神痛苦呢？在Davis v. Gage 一案的判决中，爱达荷州上诉法院认为严重的精神痛苦是指

14、已经被“ 身体上的伤害 ” 证明，或者有证据表明“ 原告的日常行为已经因此收到妨碍 或者是他 /她的精神上遭受难以承受的打击” 对于要求精神损害赔偿是否必须同时有身体上的伤害（physical injury ）发生，美国判例法有详细的规定。尽管说被告的行为同时造成了身体上的伤害的证据与精神损害的严重程度是相互关联的，但是很明显的是身体受到伤害的证据或者是表现并不是主张故意精神损害赔偿所必需的。然而在过失精神损害的案件当中，原告必须表明他所承受的精神痛苦伴随着身体上的伤害。也就是说在过失精神损害赔偿的领域里，没有“ 纯粹 ” 的精神痛苦的赔偿，或者说如果没有身体上的伤害或者疾病的表现，精神损害赔

15、偿的主张是得不到支持的。Equitable estoppel 衡平法禁止反言原则、衡平禁止翻供名师资料总结 - - -精品资料欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 名师精心整理 - - - - - - - 第 2 页，共 9 页 - - - - - - - - - where a court will not grant a judgment or other legal relief to a party who has not acted fairly; for example, by having made false representati

16、ons or concealing material facts from the other party. This illustrates the legal maxim: he who seeks equity, must do equity.【注】equitable estoppel (衡平法禁止反言)是英美法系国家的一般契约理论，其基本内涵是“My word is my bond”言行一致，不得出尔反尔。英美法系国家传统的契约理论是：合同成立、变更均须有约因(consideration)，才能产生强制执行之效力。可是实践中大量存在着这样的现象，某人许诺赠与他人物品或答应他人无偿为其做

17、某事，但不久又反悔而使受诺人遭受损失。受诺人受到损失后却无法律依据阻却权利人权利的行使。笺1877 年英国法官卡恩斯勋爵(Lord Cairns) 审理 Hughes V .Metropolitan Railway Co.案时就提出了禁止反言的观念，但并未引起人们的重视。直至1947 年，卡恩斯勋爵的观念被英国大法官丹宁(Lord Denning) 传承，并将其确立为一个法律原则。lord denning在其法律的训诫中将其解释为：“ 当一人以他的言论或行为已使另一个人相信，按照他的言论或行为办事是安全的 而且的确是按照他的言论或行为办了事 的时候，就不能允许这个人对他说的话或所做的行为反悔，

18、即使这样做对他是不公平的也应如此。 ”Equity 衡平法A body of rules or customs based on general principles of fair play rather than on common law or statutory law. 【注】 现代英语中的equity 一词源于拉丁文， 原指 “ 平均 ” 或“ 按比例分配 ” 的原则， 后来又衍生出 “ 公平 ” 、“ 正义” 之意。这种原始而质朴的正义观后来积淀为一切衡平法的最高原则。Equity 的另一重含义是由罗马人创设的，特指当民法原则停滞僵化、难以适应新的社会需要时，用于对其进行补救的一

19、种特别方法。笺衡平法是英国法的重要法律渊源。英美法系有三个法律渊源：即普通法、衡平法和成文法。英国最初只有普通法，但是到了公元十三世纪末普通法变得非常的僵硬，已经不能适应社会经济发展的需要。诉讼当事人开始直接向国王申诉。国王不胜其烦，将一些案件交由枢密大臣去审理。枢密大臣遂根据自己的良心做出只约束诉讼当事人的判决，他的判决发展成一套新的法律。这种法律具有普通法缺乏的弹性，称为衡平法。同普通法相比较，衡平法的诉讼程序比较简单，不设陪审团，一般采用书面形式审理，判决由衡平法院直接负责执行，违抗者以蔑视法庭论处，重者可下狱。这样，在民事案件中便形成了两种法律、两种法院、两种诉讼程序。为简化司法制度，

20、议会于1873 年通过最高法院审判法，1875 年生效，对英国的司法机构作了重大改革，废除了普通法法院和衡平法法院之分，建立起单一的法院体系，统一适用普通法和衡平法，并明确在普通法规则和衡平法规则发生抵触或不一致时，以衡平法规则为准。衡平法的主要原则有：衡平法不允许有错误存在而没有救济（Equity will not suffer a wrong to be without remedy ）。衡平法是对人的（Equity acts in personam）。衡平法遵从法律（Equity follows the law）。求助于衡平法者自身必须公正行事（He who seeks equity m

21、ust do equity）。求助于衡平法者自身必须清白（He who comes to equity must come with clean hands）。延误是衡平法的大敌（或者拖延击败衡平法，Delay defeats equity）。衡平法注重意图而不重形式（Equity looks at the intent rather than the form）。衡平法可以推定出履行义务的意图（Equity imputes an intention to fulfill an obligation）。衡平法把应做之事看成是已做之事（Equity regards as done that wh

22、ich ought to be done）。名师资料总结 - - -精品资料欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 名师精心整理 - - - - - - - 第 3 页，共 9 页 - - - - - - - - - Fiduciary Duty 诚信责任、诚信义务、受信责任、信义义务Fiduciary ：An individual in whom another has placed the utmost trust and confidence to manage and protect property or money. The relatio

23、nship wherein one person has an obligation to act for anothers benefit. 【注】对于 fiduciary ，布莱克法律辞典的解释为：“ 作为名词是指一个有受托人或者类似于受托人特性的人，该特性包含着信赖与信任，要求审慎的善意与诚实。作为形容词是指信托之特性，具有信托之特点，与信托类似的，与信托相关的或者建立在信托或信任基础上的” 。英国 P.H 科林在其法律词典中对“fiduciary”的解释为： “ 作为名词，是指其他人的受信托人或处于信托位置的人” 。公司董事和受托人等，因为其身处位置，对委托人或有关的受益人都负有诚信的

24、责任，基本上，诚信责任就是不能以位或权而谋私，凡事均以委托人的利益为前题。笺fiduciary duty （诚信责任）理论源自于英国衡平法，其产生距今约有上千年的历史。信义义务揭示处在信托法律关系（fiduciary relationship）中的受信人必须对委托人和受益人负有的诚信（faith ）、忠实（loyalty ）、正直（ candor ）并为其最佳利益工作的义务。在衡平法律关系中，受信人处于一种相对优势的地位，而受益人则处于相对弱势的地位。委托人将某种利益的所有权交付给受信人，受益人的利益获取取决于受信人的行为，受信人对委托人和受益人的服务不能够按普通的专业服务标准约束，法律上对其

25、提出了强制性的信义义务，以保护受益人的利益和信托法律制度的庄严和威力。至于董事是否对股东承担信义义务在学界存在不同的理解，一是广义解释信义义务的适用范围，认为董事对股东负有信义义务；二是从狭义角度解释董事的信义义务，认为董事只对公司负有信义义务，董事对股东的信义义务只是在极个别的案例中出现。信义义务的具体内容因受信人所处的地位和职责而有不同。法律上可以分类为积极的作为义务（prescriptive duties）和消极的不作为义务（proscriptive duties）。作为义务还要求受信人在处理受信事务时履行必要的谨慎义务；不作为义务则强调避免利益冲突，从而履行忠实义务。Forthwith

26、 立即a term found in contracts, court orders and statutes, meaning as soon as it can be reasonably done. It implies immediacy, with no excuses for delay. 【注】Forthwith ，是法律文书常用副词，其为“ 立即 ” 的意思，例： The outstanding sum should be settled forthwith. （应该立即清还所欠的款项）。其实，所谓立即，可以理解为最短的合理时间。General damages 普通损害赔偿、一

27、般损害赔偿monetary recovery (money won) in a lawsuit for injuries suffered (such as pain, suffering, inability to perform certain functions) or breach of contract for which there is no exact dollar value which can be calculated. 名师资料总结 - - -精品资料欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 名师精心整理 - - - - - -

28、- 第 4 页，共 9 页 - - - - - - - - - 【注】英美法中有general damages（普通损害赔偿）和special damages（特别损害赔偿）之分。Guest statute 搭车人法令、搭车者条例、乘客条款a state law which sets standards of care by the driver of a car to a non-paying passenger. Although state laws vary, the basic concept is that the social passenger can bring suit f

29、or negligence against the driver for gross negligence only if the driver could have foreseen that his/her actions or car could put the rider in great peril. 【注】所谓的 guest statute ( 搭车人法令 )，是指美国有的州法律规定搭车者因车主不慎而在交通事故中受到伤害，不得向车主要求赔偿，其目的主要是制止搭车者对车主忘恩负义的行为以及防止车主和客人合谋制造事故，骗取保险赔偿。Hit and run 肇事逃逸、开车撞人并且驾车逃跑

30、the crime of a driver of a vehicle who is involved in a collision with another vehicle, property or human being, who knowingly fails to stop to give his/her name, license number and other information as required by statute to the injured party, a witness or law enforcement officers. 【注】Hit and run ，

31、本指棒球中的 “ 击跑结合战术 ” ，这里指交通事故后，肇事司机逃逸。Implied consent 暗示同意、默示同意consent when surrounding circumstances exist which would lead a reasonable person to believe that this consent had been given, although no direct, express or explicit words of agreement had been uttered. 【注】implied consent （暗示同意），即一方当事人没有对另

32、一方当事人提出的条件明确地表示不满或异议时，则可以推定其已经同意。Informed consent 知情同意、告知后同意、患者的承诺agreement to do something or to allow something to happen only after all the relevant facts are known. In contracts, an agreement may be reached only if there has been full disclosure by both parties of everything each party knows whi

33、ch is significant to the agreement. A patients consent to a medical procedure must be based on his/her having been told all the possible consequences, except in emergency cases when such consent cannot be obtained. In criminal law, a person accused or even suspected of a crime cannot give up his/her

34、 legal rights such as remaining silent or having an attorney, unless he/she has been fully informed of his/her rights. 【注】根据布莱克法律辞典，informed consent（知情后同意）含义是：“ （1）某人在对充分了解所涉风险及选择后同意让某事发生。对于律师执业来说，知情后同意在执业行为模范规则中规定。（2）医生或其他保健服务提供者作为医疗机构中尽合理谨慎的人，就建议的治疗方案或疗程所涉风险向患者披露信息后，患者了解了关于该治疗方案或疗程的选择，然后作出同意的表示。知情

35、后同意也称为知道后同意(knowing consent)。”名师资料总结 - - -精品资料欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 名师精心整理 - - - - - - - 第 5 页，共 9 页 - - - - - - - - - 笺Informed consent doctrine（知情后同意法则），主张病人是医疗的主体而非客体，医师应该尊重病人之自主权，医疗措施要得到病人之告知後同意；医师应该将重要之医疗资讯，如病情、可能的治疗方案、各方案之治癒率、可能之并发症、副作用，以及不治疗之後果等资讯与病人分享，以帮助病人选择最适合病人生活价值之医疗方案

36、。告知後同意法则乃是建立在病人的自主权（patient autonomy ）此一上位概念上。其基本精神正如美国大法官卡多佐（Justice Benjamin Cardozo）於 1914 年所言： “ 每一个心智健全之成年人都有权利决定其身体要接受何种之处置。” （“Every human being of adult years and sound mind has a right to determine what shall be done with his own body.”）Jaywalking 走路不遵守交通规则、违规穿越马路walking across a street out

37、side of marked cross-walks, and not at a corner, and/or against a signal light. If there is vehicle traffic or clear markings of a place to cross, this is a traffic misdemeanor subject to fine, and may be (but not conclusively) contributory negligence in the event of injury to the jaywalker by a veh

38、icle. 【注】Jaywalking （走路不遵守交通规则），是指行人没有走人行横道，或闯信号灯。Jaywalker ，则是乱穿马路的人。出门走路一定要走人行道（sideways ），过马路的时候一定要走人行横道（crosswalks ）。走路不遵守交通规则（ jaywalking ），不但违法而且非常危险。Labor Dispute劳资纠纷、劳资争议Any controversy concerning terms or conditions of employment, or concerning the association or representation of persons i

39、n negotiating, fixing, maintaining, changing, or seeking to arrange terms or conditions of employment, regardless of whether or not the disputants stand in the proximate relation of employer and employee. 【注】Labor Dispute（劳资纠纷），是指劳动者（包含学徒与帮工）与用人单位（雇主）之间因劳动关系的权利义务而发生的纠纷和争执。1974 年的美国国家劳资关系法对Labor Disp

40、ute（劳资纠纷）的定义是：包括任何有关就业规定、期限或条件的争执，包括从事谈判、确定、保持、改变或寻求新的就业条件的人们的结社或代表权的问题，不论争议人是否与雇主和职工处于亲近的关系。Legal fiction 法律假设、法律拟制a presumption of fact assumed by a court for convenience, consistency or to achieve justice. There is an old adage: Fictions arise from the law, and not law from fictions. 【注】所谓法律拟制（ l

41、egal fiction ），是根据实际需要，把某种事实看作另一种事实，使其与另一种事实发生同一的法律效果。“ 拟” 、“ 制” 合在一起，有决断性虚构之意，但在法律上是一种不容反驳的推定或者假定。例如， It is a legal fiction that a corporation is a person.（把团体法人当作一个人是一种法律上的假设。）名师资料总结 - - -精品资料欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 名师精心整理 - - - - - - - 第 6 页，共 9 页 - - - - - - - - - Moral turpitud

42、e 违背道德的、道德卑劣的gross violation of standards of moral conduct, vileness. 【注】Moral Turpitude，多指违反社会道德规范、善良风俗的卑劣行为。Non-feasance不履行义务、不守法the failure of an agent (employee) to perform a task he/she has agreed to do for his/her principal (employer), as distinguished from misfeasance (performing poorly) or m

43、alfeasance (performing illegally or wrongly). 【注】non-feasance ，指当事人一方不能履行其已承诺的义务。它有别于不法行为、非法行为。Probable Cause 合理理由、合理根据Before a judge will sign a search warrant (that will allow the police to search a premises or arrest a suspect), the judge must have reliable information which states that a crime h

44、as been or is being committed and the suspect is involved. This information is termed as probable cause, based on which the judge will issue the warrant. 【注】所谓 Probable Cause （合理根据）是指，根据执法人员所了解的事实和情况或者所得到的可以合理信赖的信息，足以使一个正常而谨慎的人相信犯罪正在发生或者已经发生。由于公民的人身、住所权利受宪法保护，逮捕的条件有严格限制。宪法第四条修正案要求除非具有“ 合理根据（ Probabl

45、eCause）” ，否则不得签发逮捕令。Reckless driving 鲁莽驾驶Reckless driving is a mental state in which the driver of an automobile behaves recklessly; the driver often misjudges common driving procedures, intentionally causing accidents and other damages. Reckless driving, in the United States, is a serious moving tr

46、affic violation. As an offense reckless driving is variously described by different U.S. state statutes. It is usually a more serious offense than careless driving and is often punishable by fines, imprisonment, and/or drivers license suspension or revocation. 【注】鲁莽驾驶，有别于不小心驾驶(careless driving)，鲁莽驾驶

47、的情况比较严重，包括伤人及损毁财物、牲畜等，刑罚比不小心驾驶重。名师资料总结 - - -精品资料欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 名师精心整理 - - - - - - - 第 7 页，共 9 页 - - - - - - - - - Restraint of trade 竞业限制、限制从业Restraint of trade is a restriction on a persons freedom to conduct business in a specified or unspecified location for a specified

48、or unspecified length of time. Such restrictions are normally enacted by contracts. Generally however, such contracts are void on the ground of illegality, and cannot be enforceable unless they are reasonable in the interests of both contracting parties and of the public at large. Contracts between

49、employer and employee and contracts for the sale of businesses which include terms restrictive of free business conduct are subject to this rule. 【注】Restraint of trade（竞业限制），主要出现在雇佣关系上。很多时候，雇主会在雇佣合约上加上条款，限制雇员在离职以后，往别处地方工作或限制雇员在某特定时间内为其它雇主工作。这些限制有可能因地域或时间长短等而被法庭裁定无效。Royal Assent 御准、王室同意The granting o

50、f Royal Assent is the formal method by which a constitutional monarch completes the legislative process of lawmaking by formally assenting to an Act of Parliament. While the power to withhold Royal Assent was once exercised often, it has not been employed in a modern, democratic political atmosphere