外文翻译--生态景观设计的原则.docx

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1、外文翻译-生态景观设计的原则 生态景观设计的原则Principles of Ecological LandscapeDesign 学部（院）：建筑与艺术学院 专业：艺术设计（环境艺术设计） 学生姓名： 学号： 指导教师： 完成日期： 4 ComplexCreations: Designing and ManagingEcosystems A dragon?y?itsoverthesun- mirroredsurfaceofapond,snappingathatchingmosquitoesbeforecom- ing to rest on an overhanging rush. This i

2、s an ecosystem: animals, plants, and theirphysicalenviron- mentlinked together in the exchange of energy and materials. If this were our pond,ourecosystem,wewouldhaveitall:abeautifullandscapefeature,enlivenedbycreaturesweneve rhadto carefor,andhassle-freepestcontrol. Ecosystemslikethisponddoquiet,cr

3、ucialwork,keepingalivethebiosphereofwhichweareapart.W heresuchanaturalpond,oraforestor?oodplain,exists,itbehoovesustoprotectit.Whereonehasbeen degraded,wewouldbewellservedtorestoreit(seechap.10).Butwheresuchecosystemshavebeenplo wedunderorpavedover,wecanendeavortoreplacethemby?llingthebuiltenvironme

4、ntnot justwithlaw nsandplazasandfountainsbutwithecosystems. Anecosystemconsistsofallofthelivingorganismsinanareaalongwiththeirphysicalenviron-ment,anditspropertiesarisefromtheinteractionsbetweenthesecomponents.Anoceanbayisanecos ystem,asisanalpinemeadoworagreenroof.Perhapsbecauseoftheirclearboundari

5、es,lakes andstreams wereimportantobjectsofstudyinthedevelopmentofecosystemecology.Wherebound- ariesarelessdistinct,thelimitsofanecosystemcanbe de?ned,evenarbitrarily,basedonthequestionanecol ogistisstudyingortheboundariesofa designers site. Designedlandscapesalreadybringtogetheramanipulatedphysicale

6、nvironmentandlivingor-ganisms.Theydonotnecessarilyfunctionasnaturalecosystemsdo,however.Theyaredisconnect-ed,toooftenwastefulanddemanding,orelsetheysimplyfailtothrive.Whenwesucceedincreat-ingintegratedecosystems,theresultscanberemarkable.Lifecanspringforth,almostunbidden.Waste scanbetransformedintor

7、esources.Thevariousmembersofalivingcommunitycanreacha tentativebalance.Thebuiltenvironmentcanpurifywater,protectusfrom?oods,andstrengthenour sense ofwell-being. T.Beck,PrinciplesofEcologicalLandscapeDesign,DOI10 .5822/978-1-61091-199-3_4,?2022TravisBeck Complex Creations: Designing and Managing THE

8、ECOSYSTEMCONCEPT Theideathatplantsandanimalsandtheirenvironmentformanintegratedwholeisattherootofthedi sciplineofecology,althoughittookdecadestoarticulateinitsmodernform.In1887,inanaddresstothe Peoria Scienti?cAssociation,StephenForbesdescribedthelakeas“amicrocosm.”In orderforascientisttounderstanda

9、nyonespecies,heargued, Hemustevidentlystudyalsothespeciesuponwhichitdependsforitsexistence,andthevariouscondi tions upon which these depend. He must likewise study the species with which it comesincompetition,andtheentiresystemofconditionsaffectingtheirprosperity;andbythetimehe has studiedallthese s

10、uf?ciently hewill?ndthathehasrunthroughthewholecomplicatedmechanismofthe aquaticlifeofthelocality,bothanimalandvegetable,ofwhichhisspeciesformsbutasingleelement. (Forbes 1887:537) Theterm microcosm didnotenterintowiderecologicaluse.However,theideaofmanyorganisms formi ngalargerentitygainedexpression

11、intheturn-of-the-centuryconceptoftheclimaxcommu- nity(seechap.2).ThisconceptwassingledoutbyBritishecologistArthurTansleyina1935articleprovoca tively titled“TheUseandAbuseof VegetationalConceptsand Terms.”Theabusetowhichhereferredwas theinsistenceofClementsandotherecologistsonapplyingtheterm organism

12、 tothe climaxcommunity.“Thereisnoneedtowear ythe reader,”hewrote,“withalistofthepointsinwhichthebiotic communitydoes n ot resemblethesingleanimal orplant”(Tansley1935:290).However,hedidnot holdbackfrommentioningtha ta communitysprocessofdevelopmentisverydifferentfromthelife cycle of animals and plan

13、ts. At best, Tansley offered, vegetation might resemble a“quasi-organism,”thoughonenotnearlysowellintegratedasahumansocietyorahiveofbees.Thisacceptance ofa quasi-organismalstatusforcommunitiesdifferentiatesTansleys criticismofClementsianecology fromGleasons purelyindividualisticfocus.Thereisacertain

14、truthtotheideaoftheclimaxcommunitybeing wellintegrateda ndself-regulating,Tansleyargued,butitcouldbestatedmoreaccuratelyanotherway. Tansleypreferredtothinkintermsofintegratedsystems.Hisnotionofsystemswasborrowedfrom thephysical sciences.“These ecosystems,aswemaycall them,”hewrote,“areofthemost vario

15、uskinds andsizes.Theyformonecategoryofthemultitudinousphysicalsystemsoftheuniverse,whichrange from the universe as a whole down to the atom” (Tansley1935: 299). An essential partof T ansleysdescriptionoftheecosystemisthatheincludedinitnotonlyalloftheplantsandanimalsandoth erlivingthingsinagiven“webo

16、flife”butalsothe entiretyofthephysicalcomponentsoftheir environmen t,suchassoil,sunlight,andwater. CREATEECOSYSTEMS Builtlandscapesalsohavephysicalandbiologicalcomponents:crudely,inindustryterms, hardscapeandsoftscape.Toooften,thesecomponentsarefarfromintegrated.Thehardscapeissetin respo nse to prog

17、rammatic needs, and plants are tucked into the remaining spaces. If thephysicalenvironmentisnotrightforthebiologicalcomponents,thenitisaltered,byprovidingirrigati on,forinstance (seechap.1). Complex Creations: Designing and Managing Consideratypicallandscapepond.Anestateownermightpayacontractortocle

18、aranarea,ex-cavateahole,lineit,?llitfullofwaterfromawell,andtrimthewholesetupneatlywithrocksorlawnandpe rhapsafewaquaticplantsonaplantingshelf.Aswaterevaporatesfromtheunshadedpond,thewellpum pkicksinandtopsoffthepond.Evensuburbanhomeownerswanttheirownpondsand waterfalls,fullofmunicipalwaterandlinedw

19、ithdwarfconifersorJapaneseiris(Irisensata)sittinglike rockyp uzzlepiecesontheirlawns.Thesesystemsare fullyarti?cial,rely onsupplementalwater,and often require ?ltration or even sterilization to remain aesthetically acceptable. Physical andbiological elements are divorced from each other and from the

20、irsurroundings. Bycontrast,apondthatisconceivedofasanecosystemfusesphysicalandbiologicalelements intoawholethatintegrateswith,ratherthansitsapartfrom, ndscapearchitectsAndropogonAssociatescreatedsuchapondonapropertyinGreenwich,Co nnecticut.Naturally,throughout NewEnglands forests,inthespringsmalldep

21、ressionsintheland-scape?llwithwater,which in?ltrates asgroundwaterlevelsdropinthesummer.Thesevernalpoolsprovid eimportanthabitatforamphibianssuchassalamandersandfrogs.Onthispropertysuchadepressionexi sted,setagainstagraniticoutcrop,onlyithadlongbeen?lledwithbranches,leaves,andothergreenwast ebygener

22、ationsofgardeners.WhenColinFranklin,foundingprincipalatAndro- pogon,discoveredtherockydellandthesmallspringatitsbase,hesawanopportunity.AndropogonAssoci atesdesign philosophy haslongbeentobuild“d ynamic,holisticsystems,”thatis,ecosystems.Franklins approachwastolinethecenterofthedepressioninordertoma

23、intainaminimumwaterlevelbutleavethe edgesunlined.Waterfromthespringiscollectedinasumpbeneaththepondandpumpedviaaslenderw aterfallofftherockoutcropandintothepond.Inspringthepond over?ows,recharginggroundwaterinthe area(?g.4.1).Themarginsareplantedwithtreesandotherplantsthat areadaptedtothisseasonal?o

24、oding.Betweentheopenwater,theplantedwetlandatthepondsedge,a ndtheseasonalwetlandbeyond,thedesignprovidesdiversehabitat(seechap.7).When waterlevelsdroptotheleveloftheliner,thewettedmarginsdry,mimickingthecycleofvernalpools.Ifwa terlevelsdropfurther,thesumppumpandwaterfallcanmakeupthedifferencefromthe

25、 rechargedgroundwater.Becausethepondisintheforest,however,evaporationandthe needformakeupwaterareminimal. Thisforestedpondisnowahuboflifeandthecenteroftheentirelandscape.Ratherthancreatea sterilewaterfeatureofdissociatedelements,Andropogoncreatedanecosystem,withnaturalphysicalcycle sandplantsandanim

26、alsadaptedtothem. ECOSYSTEMSARECOMPLEXADAPTIVESYSTEMS Ecologists understanding of the multitudinous systems of the universe has evolved since Tansleywrote hiscritiqueofClementsin1935.Mostrecently,ecosystemshavebeenregardedascomplex adap- tivesystems.SimonLevin(1998,1999),abiologistatPrinceton,isachi

27、efproponentofthisview.Incompl exadaptivesystems,asexplainedbyLevin,heterogeneousindividualagentsinteractlocallytocreatelar gerpatterns,andtheoutcomeofthoselocalinteractionsaffectsthefurtherdevelopmentofthesystem(?g.4.2).Itiseasytoseehowthisappliestoecosystems.Theplantsandanimals,rocks andwateranddet

28、rit usthatmakeupapondarealldifferent,yettheyinteracttocreatearecognizable Complex Creations: Designing and Managing Figure4.1SchematicdesignoftheAndropogon- designedpondecosystem.Duringnormaldryweatherconditions(a)alinerandgroundwaterpumpmaintainaper manentwaterlevel.Duringnormalwetseasonconditions

29、(b) over?ow enters peripheral seasonal wetlands and recharges groundwater. (Drawing byColinFranklin.) systemwithpropertiesofitsown.Ifaplantthatproducesmorebiomasscompetitivelyexcludesothe rs alongthe ponds margins,thentheaccumulationofdetritusinthepond,thepopulationsof bottomfeeders,andotherecosyste

30、mpropertieswillallbeaffected. Levinfurtherdescribedfourcharacteristicsofcomplexadaptivesystems.Theyarediverse,ag-gregated,nonlinear,andconnected by?ows.Ecosystemsincludeindividualorganismswithdiversechar acteristics.Throughtheirinteractions,theindividualagentsinanecosystembecomegrouped intolargerorg

31、anizationalentities.Forexample,populationsaregroupsofinteractingindividualsofthe sames pecies(seechap.2).Themostaccuratewaytoviewaggregationisthroughthecompositionofahierarchy (seechap.9).Nonlinearitymeansthatsmallchangesinanecosystemcanleadtooutsizedeffects.Remov alofasinglekeystonespecies,forinsta

32、nce,canchangethecompositionofanentire community(seechap. 7).Nonlinearityalsoreferstothefactthatecosystemsareaffectedbyhistoryas muchasbypresentconditio ns.Finally,asweshallseeinthefollowingsections,ecosystemsclearly exhibit?owsofenergyandmaterial sthatconnectalltheirindividualparts. LET CONSTRUCTED

33、ECOSYSTEMSSELF-DESIGN If ecosystems are complex adaptive systems that develop from the interaction oftheir componentsandtheeventsofhistory,thensuccessfulecosystemsareunlikelytospringforthfromour headsfullyformedbutshouldemergeinsteadthroughaprocesswemightcallself-design. Complex Creations: Designing

34、 and Managing Figure4.2Turingpatterns,likethisone,areanexampleofacomplexsystemformedfromlocalinteractions.Inthisc ase,each pixels colorisdeterminedbythecolorofthesurroundingpixelsaccordingtoacomputer algorithm.Startingfromarandomi nitialstate,thepatterncontinuestoevolve.(ImagebyJonathanMcCabe,underC

35、reativeCommons2.0GenericLicense.) BillMitschandhiscolleaguesexploredself-designattheWilmaH.SchiermeierOlentangyRiver WetlandResearchParkinColumbus,Ohio(Mitschetal.1998).Theyintentionallyleftoneoftwobasinsintheir newlycreatedexperimentaloxbowunvegetated.Theyknewthatwind,water,andanimalswould bringinn

36、e wplantssoonenough,andtheywantedtoseehowcloselytheunplantedwetlandwouldresembletheon etheyplanted.Within3years,thetwowetlandswereremarkablysimilarintermsofvegetativecover,dive rsityofplants,waterchemistry,andseveralothermeasuresofecologicalfunc- tion(?g.4.3).Thiscongruenceresultsnotsimplyfromtheunp

37、lantedwetlandcomingtoresemblethepla ntedonebutfrombothwetlandschangingto re?ect siteconditionsandmigrations.Ofthethirteenorigin alspeciesintheplantedwetland,fourdiedoff.Thesurvivingspecieswerejoinedbyanaddi-tional?fty-twounplantedspecies.BecausethewetlandswereconnectedhydrologicallytothenearbyOlenta

38、ngyRi ver,thenatural in?ow ofspecieshadamuchgreater in?uence onthemakeupoftheplant communitiesinthetwowetlandsthandidtheinitialplantingofonebasin. Thesuccessofthetwobasinsasself-designedecosystemsisindicatedbytheOlentangyRiver Wetlands designation under the RamsarConvention as a Wetland of Internati

39、onal Importance. Complex Creations: Designing and Managing Figure4.3AerialviewofthetwoOlentangyRiverWetlands.(CourtesyofWilliamJ.Mitsch,WilmaH.Schierm eierOlentangy River Wetland ResearchPark.) ECOSYSTEMSAREORGANIZEDINTROPHICLEVELS As complex adaptive systems, ecosystems are animated by the interact

40、ions betweentheirconstituentpartsandthe?owsthatconnectthem.Inthe1940sayoungAmericanecologi st,RaymondLindeman, suggestedawayofanalyzingecosystemsintermsofenergy?ow.AswithForbesbeforehim,Linde-mans focuswasonlakes.After5yearsof?eldworkonthesmallCedarBogLakeneartheUniversityofMin nesota,Lindemansigned

41、upforapostdoctoralyearatYaleUniversitywithG.EvelynHutchinson (wholateradvisedRobertMacArthuronhisstudyofresourcepartitioninginwarblers)(seechap.3).Duri ngthatyearheandHutchinsonworkedonthearticlethatwas tobecome“The TrophicDynamicAspectof Ecology”(Lindeman1942).Tragically,Lindemandiedattheageof27,af

42、ewmonthsbe forehisarticle,whichwasinitiallyrejectedasbeingtootheoretical,was?nallypublishedinthe?agshipj ournaloftheEcologicalSocietyofAmerica.Theideasheputforthhavehadalasting impactonthe?eldofecosystemecology. Lindemans focus was on the trophic, or “energ y-availing,” relationships within an ecosy

43、stem.Bor- rowingfromGermanlimnologistAugustThienemann,heabstractedthefamiliarfoodwebsthatnatural-istsandecologistshadproducedforlakesandothersystemsintotrophiclevels:Producersareorgan-ismssuchasplantsandphytoplanktonthatobtaintheirenergyfromthesun,consumersareorganisms suchaszooplanktonand?shthatobt

44、aintheirenergyfromeatingproducers,anddecomposersarethe bacteriaandfungithatobtaintheirenergyfrombreakingdowntheorganicsubstancesinthewastes and remainsofotherorganisms.Byabstractinganecosystemtotrophiclevels,Lindeman sacri?ced a Complex Creations: Designing and Managing certainamountofbiologicalreal

45、ity.Healsocreatedtheproblemofhowtoclassifyorganismsthateat both producers and consumers. There can be several levels of consumers in anecosystem,although earlier ecologists had noted that rarely are there more than ?ve trophic levels intotal.Lindemans analysisexplainedthisphenomenon. Unlikethechemic

46、alelements,whichcan cycleinde?nitely inanecosystem(seechap.6),energy ?ow sthroughanecosysteminonedirectiononly:fromthesuntoproducerstoconsumerstosecond- aryconsumerstodecomposers.Ateachtransferofenergybetweentrophiclevels,Lindemannoted,a certainamountislost (?g.4.4).Primaryconsumerssuchasbrowsingsna

47、ilsexpendacertainamountof energyjustlivingand ?ndingproducerstoeat.Someofthemdiebeforetheyareeatenbybenthic predat ors.Someoftheenergycontainedinthebodiesofthosethatareeatenistiedupintissuessuch Figure4.4Lindemans diagramofthefoodwebanddifferenttrophiclevelsinageneralizedlake.Energyandnu trientsente

48、rthesystemfromtheoutside.Thesearecapturedandtransformedbybothmicroscopicand macrosco pic producers (phytoplanktersand pondweeds, A 1). Primary consumers (zooplankters and browsers, A 2)eattheproducersandinturnareeatenbysecondaryconsumers(planktonpredatorsandbenthicpre dators,A 3).Tertiaryconsumers(planktonpredatorsandbenthicpredators,A 4)areatthetopofthe foodchain.Alltheorganicmatterinthesystemultimatelycyclesthroug