营销管理考试重点(共21页).doc

《营销管理考试重点(共21页).doc》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《营销管理考试重点(共21页).doc（21页珍藏版）》请在淘文阁 - 分享文档赚钱的网站上搜索。

1、精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上1. Needs, Wants, Demands The marketer must try to understand the target markets needs, wants, and demand. Needs are the basic human requirements. People need food, air, water, clothing, and shelter to survive. People also have strong needs for recreation, education, and entertainment. T

2、hese needs become wants when they are directed to specific objects that might satisfy the need. An American needs foods but wants hamburger, French fries, and a soft drink. A person in Mauritius needs food but wants a mango, rice, lentils, and beans. Wants are shaped by ones society. Demands are wan

3、ts for specific products backed by an ability to pay. Many people want a Merceds; only a few are able and willing to buy one. Companies must measure not only how many people want their product but also how many would actually be willing and able to buy it. These distinctions shed light on the freque

4、nt criticism that “market create needs” or “marketers get people to buy things they dont want.” Marketers do not create needs: Needs preexist marketers. Marketers, along with other societal factors, influence wants. Marketers might promote the idea that a Mercredes would satisfy a persons need for s

5、ocial status. They do not, however, create the need for social status. 2. Product, Offering, and Brand Companies address needs by putting forth a value proposition, a set of benefits they offer to customers to satisfy their needs. The intangible value proposition is made physical by an offering, whi

6、ch can be a combination of products, services, information, and experiences. A brand is an offering from a known source. A brand name such as McDonalds carries many associations in the minds of people: hamburgers, fun, children, fast food, Golden Arches. These associations make up the brand image. A

7、ll companies strive to build brand strengththat is, a strong, favorable brand image. 1 3. The four P components of marketing mix 保证 品种 库存 Four Ps: product, price, place, promotion V全对方背叛四舍五入 啊咧电瓶车 食品啊骗人的吗 猜猜爱丽i团 2 Mix 四基本要素 Four Cs: customer solution, customer cost, convenience, communication 顾客成本方便

8、沟通 3 4. Company orientations toward the marketplace We have defined marketing management as the conscious effort to achieve desired exchange outcomes with target markets, but what philosophy should guide a companys marketing efforts? What relative weights should be given to the interests of the orga

9、nization, the customers, and society? Very often these interests conflict. Marketing activities should be carried out under a well-thought-out philosophy of efficiency, effectiveness, and social responsibility. However, there are six competing concepts under which organizations conduct marketing act

10、ivities: the production concept, product concept, selling concept, marketing concept, consumer concept, and societal marketing concept. 1) The production concept The production concept is one of the oldest concepts in business. The production concept holds that consumers will prefer products that ar

11、e widely available and inexpensive. Managers of production-oriented businesses concentrate on achieving high production efficiency, low costs, and mass-distribution. They assume that consumers are primarily interested in product availability and low prices. This orientation makes sense in developing

12、 countries, where consumers are more interested in obtaining the product than in its feature. It is also used when a company wants to expand the market. Some service organizations also operate on the production concept. Many medical and dental practices are organized on assembly-line principles, as

13、are some government agencies (such as unemployment offices and license bureaus). Although this management orientation can handle many cases per hour, it is often to charge of impersonal and poor-quality service. 2) The product concept 4 Other businesses are guided by the product concept, which holds

14、 that consumers will favor those products that offer the most quality, performance, or innovative features. Managers in these organizations focus on marketing superior products and improving them over time. They assume that buyers admire well-made products and can evaluate quality and performance. H

15、owever, these managers are sometimes caught up in a love affair with their products. Management might commit the “better-mousetrap” fallacy, believing that a better mousetrap will lead people to lead beat a path to its door. Such was the case when WebTV was launched during Christmas 1996 to disappoi

16、nting results. Product-oriented companies often trust that their engineers can design exceptional products. They get little or no customer input, and very often they will not even examine competitors products. A general Motors executive said years ago: “how can the public know what kinds of car they

17、 want until they see what is available?” GMs designers and engineers would design the new car. Then manufacturing would make it. The finance department would price it. Finally, marketing and sales would try to sell it. No wonder the car required such a hard sell! Today GM asks customers what they va

18、lue in a car and includes marketing people in the very beginning stages of design. The product concept can lead to what Theodore Levitt called “marketing myopia.” He pointed out that customers do not buy drill bitsthey buy ways to make holds. Railroad management thought that travelers wanted trains

19、and overlooked the growing competition for transportation from airlines, buses, trucks, and automobiles. Coca-Cola, focused on its soft-drink business, missed seeing the market for coffee bars and fresh-fruit juice bars that eventually impinged on its soft-drink business. McDonalds is in danger of o

20、ver focusing on its hamburger business while many diners are turning to sandwiches, pizza, tacos, and other fast food. These organizations are looking into a mirror when they should be looking out the window. 3) The selling concept 5 The selling concept is another common business orientation. The se

21、lling concept holds that consumers and business, if left alone, will ordinarily not buy enough of the organizations products. The organization must, therefore, undertake an aggressive selling and promotion effort. This concept assumes that consumers typically show buying inertia or resistance and mu

22、st be coaxed into buying. It also assumes that the company has a whole battery of effective selling and promotion tools to stimulate more buying. The selling concept is epitomized by the thinking of Sergio Zyman, Coca-Colas former vice president of marketing: the purpose of marketing is to sell more

23、 stuff to more people more often for more money in order to make more profit. The selling concept is practiced most aggressively with unsought goods, goods that buyers normally do not think of buying, such as insurance, encyclopedias, and funeral plots. These industries have perfected various sales

24、techniques to locate prospects and hard sell them on their products benefits. The selling concept is also practiced in the nonprofit area by fund-raisers, college admissions offices, and political parties. A political party “sells” its candidates to voters. The candidate moves through voting precinc

25、ts from early morning to late evening, shaking hands, kissing babies, meeting donors, and making speeches. Countless dollars are spent on radio and television advertising, posters, and mailings. The candidates flaws are concealed from the public because the aim is to make the sales, not worry about

26、post purchase satisfaction. After the election, the new official continues to take a sales-oriented view. These is little research into what the public wants and a lot of selling to get the public to accept policies the politician and the party want. Most firms practice the selling concept when they

27、 have overcapacity. Their aim is to sell what they make rather than make what the market wants. In modern industrial economies, productive capacity has been built up to a point where most markets are buyer markets (the buyers are dominant) and sellers have to scramble for customers. Prospects are bo

28、mbarded with TV commercials, newspaper ads, direct mail, and sales 6 calls. At every turn, someone is trying to sell something. As a result, the public often identifies marketing with hard selling and advertising. However, marketing based on hard selling carries high risks. It assumes that customers

29、 who are coaxed into buying a product will like it; and that if they do not, they will not bad-mouth it or complain to consumer organizations and will forget their disappointment and buy it again. These are indefensible assumptions. One study showed that dissatisfied customers may bad-mouth the prod

30、uct to 10 or more acquaintances; today bad news travels even faster and further with Internet. 4) The marketing concept The marketing concept emerged in the mid-1950s and challenged the preceding concepts. Instead of a product-centered, “make-and-sell” philosophy, we shift to a customer-centered, “s

31、ense-and respond” philosophy. Instead of “hunting,” marketing is “gardening.” The job is not to find the right customers for your product, but the right products for your customers. As stated by the famed direct marketer Lester Wunderman, “the chant of the Industrial Revolution was that of the manuf

32、acturer who said, this is what I make, wont you please buy it. The call of the Information Age is the consumer asking, this is what I want, wont you please make it. ” The marketing concept holds that the key to achieving its organizational goals consists of the company being more effective than comp

33、etitors in creating, delivering, and communicating superior customer value to its chosen target markets. It crystallized in the mid-1950s and has been expressing in many colorful ways: “Meeting needs profitably.” “Find wants and fill them.” “Love the customer, not the product.” “Having it your way.”

34、 (Burger King) “You re the boss.” (United Airlines) “Putting people first.” (British Airways) 7 “Partners for profit.” (Milliken & Company) (a) The selling concept Starting point Focus Means Ends (b) The marketing concept Theodore Levitt of Harvard drew a perceptive contrast between the selling and

35、marketing concept: Selling focuses on the needs of the seller; marketing on the needs of the buyer. Selling is preoccupied with the sellers need to convert his product into crash; marketing with the idea of satisfying the needs of the customer by means of the product and the whole cluster of things

36、associated with creating, delivering and finally consuming it. The marketing concept rests on the four pillars: target market, customer needs, integrated marketing, and profitability. They are illustrated in the figure, where they are contrasted with a selling orientation. The selling concept takes

37、an inside-out perspective. It starts with the factory, focus on existing products, and calls for heavy 8 selling and promoting to produce profitable sales. The marketing concept takes an outside-in perspective. It stars with a well-defined market, focuses on customer needs, coordinates all the activ

38、ities that will affect customers, and produces profits by satisfying customers. 5. Mass marketing versus one-to-one marketing Mass marketing One-to-one marketing Average customer Individual customer Customer anonymity Customer profile Standard product Customized market offering Mass distribution Cus

39、tomized production Mass advertising Individualized message Mass promotion Individualized incentives One-way message Two-way messages Economies of scale Economics of scope Share of market Share of customers All customers Profitable customers Customer attraction Customer retention 6. Stakeholders （差别

40、举例说明） As its first stop on the road to high performance, the business must define its stakeholders and their needs. Traditionally, most businesses focused on their stakeholders. Todays businesses are increasingly recognizing that unless they nurture other stakeholders-customers, employees, suppliers

41、, distributorsthe business may never earn sufficient profits for the stockholders. 9 A company can aim to deliver satisfaction levels above the minimum for different stakeholders. For example, it might aim to delight its customers, perform well for its employees, and deliver a threshold level of sat

42、isfaction to its suppliers. In setting these levels, a company must be careful they are getting. There is dynamic relationship connecting the stakeholder groups. A smart company creates a high level of employee and satisfaction, which leads to higher effort, which leads to higher-quality products an

43、d services, which creates higher customer satisfaction, which leads to more repeat business, which leads to higher growth and profits, which leads to high stockholder satisfaction, which leads to more investment, and so on. This I the virtuous circle that spells profits and growth. 7. The Boston con

44、sulting group s growth-share matrix （注：圈的大小的含义） The Boston Consulting Group (BCG), a leading management consulting firm, developed and popularized the growth-share matrix shown in the Figure(上面的图，下面同). The eight circles represent the current sizes and positions of eight business units in a hypotheti

45、cal company. The size of the circle depends on the dollar volume 10 of each business. Thus, the two largest businesses are 5 and 6. The location of each business unit indicates its market growth rate and relative market share. The Growth-Share Matrix The market growth rate on the vertical axis indic

46、ates the annual growth rate of the market in which the business operates. In Figure, it ranges from 0 percent to 20 percent. A market growth rate above 10 percent is considered high. Relative market share, which is measured on the horizontal axis, refers to the SBUs market share relative to that of

47、its largest competitor in the segment. It serves as a measure of the companys strength in that market segment. A relative market share of 0.1 means that the companys sales volume is only 10 percent of the leaders; a relative share of 10 means that companys SBU is the leader and has 10 times the sale

48、s of the next-strongest competitor in that market. Relative market share is divided into high and low share, using 1.0 as the dividing line. Relative market share is drawn in log scale, so that equal distances represent the same percentage increase. The growth-share matrix is divided into four cells, each indicating s different type of the business： 1） Question market: businesses that operate in high-growth markets but have low relative market shares. A question market requires a lot of cash because the company has to spend money on plant, equipment, and p