语言学教程期末考试复习专用笔记（老师画的重点-自己整理的）.doc

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1、Four short words sum up what has lifted most successful individuals above the crowd: a little bit more.-author-date胡壮麟语言学教程期末考试复习专用笔记(老师画的重点-自己整理的)胡壮麟语言学教程期末考试复习专用笔记(老师画的重点-自己整理的)Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1Why study language?1.Language is very essential to human beings.2.In language ther

2、e are many things we should know.3.For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2What is language?1.3Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communica

3、tion.1.3.1Arbitrariness1.3.2Duality1.3.3CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for

4、 the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4Displacement1.4Origin of language1.The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2.The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancesto

5、rs, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3.The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jaco

6、bson, language has six functions:1.Referential: to convey message and information;2.Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3.Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4.Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5.Phatic: to establish communion wit

7、h others;6.Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.What is contextualism?“Contextualism” is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, observable context: the “situational context” and the “linguistic context”. Every utterance occurs in a particular s

8、patial-temporal situation, as the following factors are related to the situational context: (1) the speaker and the hearer; (2) the actions they are performing at the time; (3) various external objects and events; (4) deictic features. The “linguistic context” is another aspect of contextualism. It

9、considers the probability of one words co-occurrence or collocation with another, which forms part of the meaning, and an important factor in communication.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:According to Hu Zhuanglin, langua

10、ge has at least seven functions:1.5.1Informative1.5.2Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in ma

11、rriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4Emotive function1.5.5Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning

12、, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a babys babbling or a chanters chanting.1.5.7Metalingual functionThe

13、 metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies

14、not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7Main branches of linguistics1.7.1PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2PhonologyPhonology studies the

15、rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences i

16、n a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. 1.7.5SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguis

17、tics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers

18、a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3Anthropological linguistics,Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4Computational linguisticsComputational l

19、inguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record t

20、he rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Dont sa

21、y X.” is a prescriptive command; “People dont say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descript

22、ive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussures diachronic description is the study of a languag

23、e through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeares time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic stu

24、dy. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or dat

25、a of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a m

26、ass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language users underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual

27、 use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speakers competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological a

28、nd social factors. So a speakers performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomskys competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussures langue-parole distincti

29、on. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psy

30、cholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1.Articulatory phonetics the study of the production of speech sounds2.Acoustic phonetics the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in s

31、peech3.Auditory phonetics the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the ini

32、tiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2Phonetic transcriptionInternational P

33、honetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.

34、4.2ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1.the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2.where in t

35、he vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation).2.4.3Manners of articulation8.Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.2.4.5The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Sta

36、ndard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of th

37、e BBC network.A chart of English consonantsManner of articulationPlace of articulationBilabialLabio-dentalDentalAlveolarPost-alveolarPalatalVelarGlottalStopp bt dk g(8)NasalmnNFricativef vW Ts zF VhApproximantwrjLaterallAffricatetF dVIn many cases there are two sounds that share the same place and m

38、anner of articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:p voiceless bilabial stop b voiced bilabial stops voiceless alveolar

39、 fricative z voiced alveolar fricativem bilabial nasal n alveolar nasall alveolar lateral j palatal approximanth glottal fricative r alveolar approximant2.5Vowels2.5.1The criteria of vowel description1.The part of the tongue that is raised front, center, or back.2.The extent to which the tongue rise

40、s in the direction of the palate. Normally, three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.3.The kind of opening made at the lips various degrees of lip rounding or spreading.4.The position of the soft palate raised for oral vowels, and lowered for

41、vowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2The theory of cardinal vowelsIcywarmtea doesnt quite understand this theory.Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing lan

42、guages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1i, CV2e, CV3Z, CV4a, CV5B, CV6C, CV7o, CV8u.A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for a give position: CV9 CV16. I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If

43、 you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47. icywarmtea2.5.3Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.Vowel glides: Vowels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one

44、 distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4The vowels of RPi: high front tense unrounded vowel u high back lax rounded vowelE central lax unrounded vowel C low back lax rounded vowel2.6Coarticulation and phonetic transcription

45、2.6.1CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If th

46、e sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2Broad and narrow transcripti

47、onsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunc