RFID技术在美国身份证明中的应用毕业论文外文翻译.doc

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1、毕业论文外文文献及译文 Uses of RFID Technology in U.S. 文献、资料题目： Identification Documents 文献、资料来源： 网络MIT Libraries 文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2009.9院 （部）： 信息与电气工程学院专 业： 电气工程与自动化班 级 电气094姓 名： 学 号： 2009081144指导教师： 翻译日期： 2013.3.22 外文文献：Uses of RFID Technology in U.S. Identification Documents Project Leads Monica Nogueira, PhD,

2、 University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Noel Greis, PhD, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Statement of Problem The investigations following the attacks of September 11, 2001 , showed that our ability to verify a persons identity is crucial to our national security. As pointed out by

3、The 9/11 Commission Report (National Commission on Terrorists Attacks Upon the United States, 2004), travel documents are as important as weapons for terrorists. To carry out an attack on American soil, foreign terrorists must cross our borders-which requires passing an identification screening. A v

4、alid passport also allows a terrorist to obtain other valid documents (e.g. , drivers license, credit cards, health insurance card) that are important to performing normal life activities while maintaining a low profile and avoiding detection. Four projects, currently in different stages of implemen

5、tation, use Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) or Machine-Readable Zones (MRZ) technologies for verification and validation of identity in the United S tates. These programs are 1) e-Passport , 2) PASS Card, 3) Real ID, and 4) Enhanced Drivers License. The use of RFID enables data to be stored el

6、ectronically in chips embedded in identification documents and shared quickly in digital format by law enforcement personnel. Documents with RFID chips and a secure networking environment to exchange data are deemed more secure and less prone to counterfeiting than conventional, non-electronic docum

7、ents. However, there is still debate about how to best balance the security benefits from RFID-enabled identification documents with concerns about privacy. Background In response to potential security threats after 9/11, the U.S. Congress passed the Enhanced Border Security and Visa Entry Reform Ac

8、t of 2002, establishing new requirements for visa operations in the United States hat allow travelers from the 27 countries then participating in the Visa Waiver Program (VWP)to enter the United States for business or pleasure for up to 90 days without attaining a visa-provided they have a machine-r

9、eadable passport that uses biometric identifiers (U.S. Department of State, n.d. ,Enhanced border security). This act is considered one of the major factors that spurred the adoption of RFID chips for national identification in the United States and worldwide. The international standards for travel

10、documents with MRZ and RFID that are used by most counties have been developed by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), an international organization run by the United Nations.Electronic documents that feature machine-readable zones can be read by physical contact with optical scanne

11、rs. The U.S. Department of State (DoS) has been issuing machine-readable passports since1981. Machine-readable passports contain two lines of 44 characters on the data page with the bearers name, country, and passport number. The Enhanced Border Security and Visa Entry Reform Act of 2002 set a new s

12、tandard by establishing interoperability standards, along with integrated entry and exit data systems and requirements for tamper-resistant, machine-readable documents that contain ICAO-compliant biometric identifiers such as a digital photograph. The recent addition of RFID chips to machine-readabl

13、e documents balances the need for electronic data storage on the e-document with automated document control, since the RFID chip can be quickly read from a distance rather than by contact with an optical scanner. RFID chips and contactless smart cards use radio frequencies for communicating data ove

14、r the distance between the chip and reader. Both contact-based and contactless smart cards contain a small microprocessor that provides more memory and stronger security capacities, while (passive) RFID tags typically contain a chip with less memory and limited functionality. For the purposes of thi

15、s brief, we do not distinguish between RFID-enabled cards and contactless smart cards. American E-Document Programs E-Passport. Following 9/11, the United S tates accelerated plans for the adoption of a new electronic passport standard that would increase the security of travel documents and protect

16、 against unauthorized entry by terrorists (U.S. Department of State, n.d. , The U.S. electronic passport). Shortly thereafter, in May 2003, ICAO formulated standards for a new e-Passport with an integrated circuit RFID chip that would securely house personal identification information about the bear

17、er. The ICAO standard specified that all e-Passports were to contain a digital photo of the traveler, as well as additional identifying biometric data such as fingerprints and iris images. As shown in Figure 1 , the same data elements from the front page of the passport are stored on a chip embedded

18、 in the back cover of the passport. U.S. legislators have adopted the term biometric passport to denote a machine readable e-Passport in which a digital photograph has been electronically printed to the data page rather than pasted onto the page. The use of RFID technology to store digital photograp

19、hs enables biometric comparison through the use of facial recognition technology, which allows for faster and automated identity verification at international borders and ports of entry. It is important to note that the data in e-Passports cannot be changed or amended. Anyone seeking a data alterati

20、on must apply for a new e-Passport. The DoS began issuing e-Passports in August 2006. Since August 2007, the U.S. has been issuing only e- Passports, but a previously issued passport can still be used for travel as long as it is valid. The RFID chip is protected by a Faraday cage-a metallic shield t

21、hat interrupts the transmission of electromagnetic energy or electrostatic discharge across it-to prevent skimming and implements the Basic Access Control (BAC), allowing encryption of transmissions between the passports radio frequency (RF) chip and the RF reader. The adoption of a Faraday cage lim

22、its the reading of the RFID chip data to the times when the bearer physically opens the passport. PASS Card.In October 2006 the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) expanded the use of RFID to the PASS (People, Access Security Service) System (shown in Figure 2) . This system, a joint DoS and DHS i

23、nitiative, was designed to meet the requirements of the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI) for U .S. citizens entering the United States by land and sea (U.S. Department of Homeland Security and U.S. Department of State, 2008). Devised as a less expensive, smaller, and more convenient alter

24、native to the e -Passport, the new electronic passport card, or PASS Card as it is called, is intended for use by Americans traveling frequently to Canada, Mexico, Bermuda, and the Caribbean (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2006) . This credit card -sized PASS Card may become the identificatio

25、n document of choice for Americans living close to the U.S. borders. The RFID chip on the PASS Card stores only a unique identifying number for accessing the cardholders information in a secure Customsand Border Patrol database. The card data are transmitted “in the clear ”(i.e., without encryption,

26、 but the card s come with a protective sleeve to shield the chip from being read when the card is not in use). The PASS Card has the same validity period as a passport but is not accepted in lieu of a valid U.S. e-Passport (or valid U.S. passport in the old format) from U.S. citizens .entering the c

27、ountry by air. Production of PASS Cards began on July 14, 2008. As of April 2009, PASS Card was operational at 33 of the 39 high -volume land ports-locations that account for 95% of all U.S. border crossings. By May 2009, more than 1 million PASS Cards had been issued to U.S. citizens (U.S. Departme

28、nt of State, n.d. , U.S. passport card ). REAL ID.The REAL ID Act of 2005 responded to the 9/11 Commission recommendation to improve the security of identification documents such as drivers licenses and to guard against terrorist entry by creating a contact-based national identification card , or RE

29、AL ID.The Act for bade any federal agency to accept, for official purposes, a drivers license or identification card issued by one of the 50 states (or U.S. possessions or territories) unless it complied with the minimum REAL ID requirements within 3 years. In addition to common identification eleme

30、nts such as a persons full legal name, date of birth, address, and signature, the Real ID Act also mandated physical security features to prevent tampering and counterfeiting, as well as common machine-readable technology for fast identity verification at border crossings or airports and information

31、 sharing. The machine- readable standard mandated is the PDF417 barcode（as shown in Figure 3)a two-dimensional, stackable, linear, high -density symbology capable of encoding large amounts of data, including text, images, and fingerprints. Although RFID, at this point, is n either mandated nor prohi

32、bited, in the final rule (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 200 8 a) DHS invited comments on how states would incorporate other WH TI-compliant technologies, such as RFID-enabled vicinity technology, in addition to the Real ID PDF417 barcode requirement. The Act mandated that states, prior to is

33、suing or renewing a new ID, must verify the citizenship or immigration status of applicants-including verifying the validity of the Social Security number (SSN) and the authenticity of all submitted source documents. In addition, states would be required to capture and store digital images of the so

34、urce documents for extended periods of time-7 years for paper copies or 10 years for digital images. The Act mandated the creation of state databases to be accessible to all other states, in effect creating a network of national identification databases. It also mandated the use of the Systematic Al

35、ien Verification for Entitlements (SAVE) system to verify the legal presence status of any foreigners app lying for a U.S. drivers license or identification card. Criticized for its high costs, short implementation timeframe, lack of privacy protections, and widespread perception as creating a defac

36、to national identification card, the law was greeted with strong opposition (“Controversial Real ID,”2005; Garson, 2006; Rotenberg, 2006; “Real ID deadline”, 2007 ; National Veterans Committee on Constitutional Affairs, 2007).A coalition of at least 38 states was formed to informally oppose it (Ferg

37、uson, 2007)-a reaction that probably accelerated the approval of The REAL ID Repeal and Identification Security Enhancement Act of 2007 (U.S. Congress, 2007) and reversion to an earlier set of minimum standards.Subsequently, a majority of states took steps to comply with these new minimum requiremen

38、ts to verify source documentation-but not to coordinate with other states in a national identification database system. In May 2008, DHS extended the deadline to replace all licenses used for official purposes with REAL ID-compliant cards; the new deadline is December 1, 2014, for people born after

39、December 1, 1964, and to December 1, 2017, for t hose born on or before December 1, 1964. At present, no REAL ID card has been issued in the United States. Enhanced Drivers License.While individual states search for a solution that fulfills the REAL ID requirements, some border states have created a

40、n alternative card-the Enhanced Drivers License (EDL), shown in Figure 4-that is cost- effective and convenient and meets driving and border-crossing needs. Four border states (Michigan, New York, Vermont, and Washington) have adopted standards shared by the REAL ID program and have already started

41、issuing EDLs. Others (Arizona, California, and Texas) are considering this alternative. In addition to serving as a permit to drive , EDLs (like PASS Cards) can be used by American citizens, in lieu of a passport, to travel by land and sea between the U.S. and Canada, Mexico, and some countries in t

42、he Caribbean. DHS has also worked with Canadian officials to implement EDLs as an alternative to Canadian passports. Currently , four Canadian provinces (British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec) issue EDLs to Canadian citizens, who can use this document to enter the United S tates when trave

43、ling from Canada, Mexico, or the Caribbean by land or sea. Although the REAL ID and EDL programs are both intended to strengthen identification verification capability, EDLs are not a substitute for the REAL ID. REAL IDs will provide proof of legal status in the United S tates for both citizens and

44、legal aliens, while only U.S. citizens can obtain an EDL (U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 2009). Similarly to the PASS Card, EDL cards contain an RFID chip that stores non-encrypted information and includes a protective sleeve to protect against unauthorized data transmission when in use. RFID T

45、echnology in U.S. E-Documents.As shown in Table 1, significant technical differences distinguish the four U.S. e-documents.The e-Passport uses “proximity” technology that limits the RFID reading range to a few feet. The embedded data include the same information typed on the passport data page, plus

46、 a digital photograph of the passport bearer, a unique chip identification number, and a digital signature to prevent its alteration or removal from the RFID. To prevent unauthorized reading, the cards data are protected by a metallic layer that blocks transmissions when the e- Passport is closed. D

47、ata transmissions between the e -Passports chip and the RFID reader are encrypted and can occur only when the e -Passport is open. The e-Passport RFID readers are shielded to minimize eavesdropping. The PASS Cards carry a“vicinity”RFID chip, which has a much larger reading range of 20 to 30 feet. Th

48、is allows RFID readers to identify cardholders while they stand in line, or in their cars, waiting to talk to the border inspector at a checkpoint. The RFID chip store s no personal information, but only a unique identification number that is read by an RFID reader and linked to a secure database for use by the border inspector in processing the individuals entry into the country. The identification number is transmitted without encryption. A protective sleeve for the card shields the chip from being read when