The introduction to the Prague School英语论文.doc

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1、The introduction to the Prague School Modern linguistics began from the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” and” a master of a discipline which he made modern”. And the Prague School is one of the four main schools of the modern linguistics,

2、 which has been seen as the most influential school, and has influenced every important development in the United States.The forerunner of the Prague School was the Moscow Linguistic Circle founded in 1915. It is a circle consisted of a group of young scholars such as Trubetzkoy and Jakobson. The is

3、sues that this circle concerns are of both language and linguistics including problems of poetics, literature analysis, and general artistic structure under the influence of Slavic and historical linguistics. The Prague School see language in terms of function, particularly phonology, for which the

4、Prague School is the best known and remembered , moreover ,it has made great contribution to differentiate phonetics and phonology. And in this field, the most influential person is Trubetzkoy, the writer of Principle of Phonology, in which he fully demonstrates his theory as to phonology. He argued

5、 that phonology belongs to langue, while phonetics belongs to parole. And on this basis he developed the notion of phoneme, as an abstract unit of sound system, which is different from the sounds actually produced, however, there are some similarities between them, that is sounds can be phonemes whe

6、n they can discriminate meanings. By the 1920s, the terms phoneme and phonology were well known to European linguistics. To classify those distinctive features, Trubetzkoy developed three standards. While more importantly, he attached great importance to the oppositions among phonemes rather than to

7、 the phonemes themselves, following Saussures emphasis on the differential function of linguistic elements. All in all, there are nine kinds of oppositions,namely,bilateral,multilateral,proportional ,isolated ,privative, gradual ,equipollent, Neutralisable, Constant. Trubetzkoys chief contribution i

8、n phonology was taken in the sense of functional phonology, which concerns four aspects. First and foremost, as I mentioned before in this article, he gave a accurate definition for the phoneme, and showed distinctive functions of speech sounds, emphasizing on the concept of phonological opposition

9、over phoneme. Furthermore, he defined the sphere of phonological studies by discriminating phonetics and phonology, which is something bothering many people. Moreover, by studying the syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between phonemes, he revealed the interdependent relations between phonemes.

10、Last but not least, he put forward a series of method for phonological studies, such as the method of extracting phonemes and the method of studying phonological combinations, which made great contributions to the later studies.Next, I will move to the FSP (functional sentence perspectives), which i

11、s a theory of linguistic analysis, or to say, an analysis of texts in terms of the information they contain. The main principle is that the role of each sentence part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole, that is to say, analysis a sentence from functional point of view. At this s

12、tage, the linguists believe that a sentence consists of two partsa point of departure, and a goal of destination. In detail, the point of departure is actually a platform where the speaker and the listener meet, known as THEME, while the goal of discourse is the information the speaker imparts, call

13、ed RHEME. Furthermore, the movement from the THEME to RHEME reveals the movement of the mind itself. Inspired by the ideas of the Prague School, the theory of functional sentence perspective (FSP) is concerned with the distribution of information as determined by all meaningful elements, from intona

14、tion to context. A central feature of FSP is communicative dynamism, developed by J Firbas, in order to figure out the relation between structure and function, which measures the amount of information an element carries in a sentence. Jan Firbas also discusses the distribution of the degrees of comm

15、unicative dynamism over sentence elements, which determines the orientation or perspective of the sentence, based on the fact that linguistic communication is not a static phenomenon ,but a dynamic one. For instance, as in the sentence“the girl under the tree was eating an apple”,we can see that the

16、 stressed part “was” the information that is to be imparted, not present tense, so this element has significant semantic content, whereas all the other information is the already known information determined by the text, or, to ,say, these information depend on the context, and therefore they carry

17、the lowest degree of CD. As to what determines an element contextually dependent or independent is the purpose of the communication. Normally the subject carries a lower degree of CD than other parts of the sentence, say, the finite verb, the object, or adverb, on the condition that this elements do

18、 not depend on the context. As we know the semantic contents and relations contribute to the degree of CD and they are not directly related to the positions the elements occupy with a sentence. However, not all the semantic contents and relations are capable of signaling degrees in the same way.In c

19、onclusion, the Prague School, as one of the four main schools in the modern linguistics, is indeed an influential school. It practices a special style of synchronic linguistics, and its most important contribution to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of function. Prague School linguistic

20、s success essentially changed the character of European linguistics, and Trubetzkoys contributions were inherited and further elaborated by Martinet and his associates whofound the Functionalist School, i.e., Prague School is the cradle of Structuralism. 1.爱不释手fondle admiringly.2.百闻不如一见（眼见为实） Seeing

21、 is believing.3.比上不足比下有余 worse off than some, better off than many; to fall short of the best, but be better than the worst. 4.笨鸟先飞 A slow sparrow should make an early start. 5.不眠之夜 white night 6.不以物喜不以己悲 not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personnal losses 7.不遗余力 spare no effort; go all

22、out; do ones best 8.不打不成交 No discord, no concord. 9.拆东墙补西墙 rob Peter to pay Paul 10.辞旧迎新 bid farewell to the old and usher in the new; ring out the old year and ring in the new 11.大事化小小事化了 try first to make their mistake sound less serious and then to reduce it to nothing at all 12.大开眼界 open ones ey

23、es; broaden ones horizon; be an eye-opener 13.国泰民安 The country flourishes and people live in peace.14.过犹不及 going too far is as bad as not going far enough; beyond is as wrong as falling short; too much is as bad as too little 15.功夫不负有心人 Everything comes to him who waits. 16.好了伤疤忘了疼 once on shore, on

24、e prays no more 17.好事不出门恶事传千里 Good news never goes beyond the gate, while bad news spread far and wide. 18.和气生财 Harmony brings wealth. 19.活到老学到老 One is never too old to learn. 20.既往不咎 let bygones be bygones 21.金无足赤人无完人 Gold cant be pure and man cant be perfect. 22.金玉满堂 Treasures fill the home. 23.脚踏

25、实地 be down-to-earth 24.脚踩两只船 sit on the fence 25.君子之交淡如水 the friendship between gentlemen is as pure as crystal; a hedge between keeps friendship green 26.老生常谈陈词滥调 cut and dried, clich 27.礼尚往来 Courtesy calls for reciprocity. 28.留得青山在不怕没柴烧 Where there is life, there is hope. 29.马到成功 achieve immediate

26、 victory; win instant success 30.名利双收 gain in both fame and wealth 31.茅塞顿开 be suddenly enlightened 32.没有规矩不成方圆 Nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards. 33.每逢佳节倍思亲 On festive occasions more than ever one thinks of ones dear ones far away.It is on the festival occasions when one misses

27、his dear most. 34.谋事在人成事在天 The planning lies with man, the outcome with Heaven. Man proposes, God disposes. 35.弄巧成拙 be too smart by half; Cunning outwits itself 36.拿手好戏 masterpiece 37.赔了夫人又折兵 throw good money after bad 38.抛砖引玉 a modest spur to induce others to come forward with valuable contribution

28、s; throw a sprat to catch a whale 39.破釜沉舟 cut off all means of retreat；burn ones own way of retreat and be determined to fight to the end40.抢得先机 take the preemptive opportunities 41.巧妇难为无米之炊 If you have no hand you cant make a fist. One cant make bricks without straw.42.千里之行始于足下 a thousand-li journe

29、y begins with the first step-the highest eminence is to be gained step by step 43.前事不忘后事之师 Past experience, if not forgotten, is a guide for the future. 44.前人栽树后人乘凉 One generation plants the trees in whose shade another generation rests.One sows and another reaps. 45.前怕狼后怕虎 fear the wolf in front an

30、d the tiger behind hesitate in doing something 46.强龙难压地头蛇 Even a dragon (from the outside) finds it hard to control a snake in its old haunt - Powerful outsiders can hardly afford to neglect local bullies. 47.强强联手 win-win co-operation 48.瑞雪兆丰年 A timely snow promises a good harvest. 49.人之初性本善 Mans na

31、ture at birth is good. 50.人逢喜事精神爽 Joy puts heart into a man. 51.人海战术 huge-crowd strategy 52.世上无难事只要肯攀登 Where there is a will, there is a way. 53.世外桃源 a fictitious land of peace away from the turmoil of the world; 54.死而后已 until my heart stops beating 55.岁岁平安 Peace all year round. 56.上有天堂下有苏杭 Just as

32、there is paradise in heaven, while there are Suzhou and Hangzhou on earth 57.塞翁失马焉知非福 Misfortune may be an actual blessing. 58.三十而立 A man should be independent at the age of thirty.At thirty, a man should be able to think for himself. 59.升级换代 updating and upgrading (of products)60.四十不惑 Life begins a

33、t forty. 61.谁言寸草心报得三春晖 Such kindness of warm sun, cant be repaid by grass. 62.水涨船高 When the river rises, the boat floats high. 63.时不我待Time and tide wait for no man. 64.杀鸡用牛刀break a butterfly on the wheel 65.实事求是seek truth from facts; be practical and realistic; be true to facts 66.说曹操,曹操到Talk of the

34、 devil and he comes. 67.实话实说speak the plain truth; call a spade a spade; tell it as it is 68.实践是检验真理的唯一标准Practice is the sole criterion for testing truth. 69.山不在高，有仙则名No matter how high the mountain is, its name will spread far and wide if there is a fairy; 70.韬光养晦hide ones capacities and bide ones

35、time 71.糖衣炮弹sugar-coated bullets 72.天有不测风云Anything unexpected may happen. a bolt from the blue 73.团结就是力量Unity is strength. 74.“跳进黄河洗不清” eve if one jumped into the Yellow River, one can not wash oneself clean-theres nothing one can do to clear ones name.75.歪风邪气unhealthy practices and evil phenomena 7

36、6.物以类聚，人以群分Birds of a feather flock together. 77.往事如风The past has vanished (from memory) like wind.; What in past, is pas 78.望子成龙hold high hopes for ones child 79.屋漏又逢连阴雨Misfortunes never come singly. When it rains it pours. 80.文韬武略military expertise; military strategy 81.唯利是图draw water to ones mill

37、 82.无源之水,无本之木water without a source, and a tree without roots 83.无中生有make create something out of nothing 84.无风不起浪There are no waves without wind. Theres no smoke without fire.85.徇私枉法bend the law for the benefit of relatives or friends 86.新官上任三把火a new broom sweeps clean 87.虚心使人进步,骄傲使人落后Modesty helps

38、 one go forward, whereas conceit makes one lag behind. 88. 蓄势而发accumulate strength for a take-off 89.心想事成May all your wish come true 90.心照不宣have a tacit understanding; give tacit consent; tacit understanding 91.先入为主First impressions are firmly entrenched. 92.先下手为强catch the ball before the bound 93.像

39、热锅上的蚂蚁like an ant on a hot pan 94.现身说法warn people by taking oneself as an example 95.息事宁人pour oil on troubled waters 96.喜忧参半mingled hope and fear 97.循序渐进step by step 98.一路平安，一路顺风speed somebody on their way; speed the parting guest 99.严以律己,宽以待人be strict with oneself and lenient towards others 100鱼米之乡

40、101.有情人终成眷属Jack shall have Jill, all shall be well. 102.有钱能使鬼推磨Money makes the mare go. Money talks. 103. 有识之士people of vision 104.有勇无谋use brawn rather than brain 105.有缘千里来相会Separated as we are thousands of miles apart, we come together as if by predestination. 106.与时俱进advance with times.107.以人为本peo

41、ple oriented; people foremost.108.因材施教teach students according to their aptitude.109.欲穷千里目，更上一层楼to ascend another storey to see a thousand miles further; Ascend further, were you to look farther; Would eye embrace a thousand miles? Go up, one flight. a land of milk and honey 110.欲速则不达Haste does not

42、bring success. 111. 优胜劣汰survival of the fittest.112.英雄所见略同Great minds think alike. 113.冤家宜解不宜结Better make friends than make enemies. 114.冤假错案cases in which people were unjustly, falsely or wrongly charged or sentenced; unjust, false or wrong cases 115.一言既出，驷马难追A real man never goes back on his words

43、. 116.招财进宝Money and treasures will be plentiful.117.债台高筑become debt-ridden.118.致命要害Achilles heel.119. 众矢之的target of public criticism 120.知己知彼,百战不殆Know the enemy and know yourself, and you can fight a hundred battles with no danger of defeat. 121. 纸上谈兵be an armchair strategist 122.左右为难between the devil and the deep blue sea.123.纸包不住火Truth will come to light sooner or later.