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1、Translation theories in the west我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物According to Steiner (1998: 248-9), the history of discourse on translation is divided into four periods: (1) a traditional period, from the beginning of the Christian era to the end of the eighteenth

2、 century, which is a period of immediate empirical focus“(2) a period of theory and hermeneutic inquiry, growing out of German Romanticism around the beginning of the nineteenth century, 我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物(3) a modern period, reaching well into the t

3、wentieth century, in which the influence of General Linguistics is increasingly dominant (4) the contemporary period, a cultural turn to translation studies.我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物a traditional periodOver two millennia, only a few authors have succeeded i

4、n introducing anything fundamental or new. These creators and transformers include Saint Jerome, Luther, Dryden, Holderlin, Novalis, Schleiermacher, Nietzsche, Ezra Pound, (1998: 283) 我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物Cicero (西塞罗公元前 106-前43年, 古罗马政治家、雄辩家) I saw that

5、to employ the same expressions profited me nothing, while to employ others was a positive hindrance Afterwards I resolved to translate freely Greek speeches of the most eminent orators. As a consequence, I not only found myself using the best words, and yet quite familiar ones, but also coining by a

6、nalogy certain words such as would be new to our people, provided only they were appropriate (Robinson 1997a: 7). 我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物西塞罗主要观点西塞罗主要观点译者应该像演说家一样，使用符合古罗马语言习惯的语言来表达外来作品的内容。直译是缺乏技巧的表现。翻译应保留词语最内层的东西，即意思。翻译也是文学创作。各种语言的修辞手段彼此相通，因此翻译可以做到风格对等。提出“

7、解释员”式翻译和“演说家”式翻译，即直译与意译。我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物St. JeromeHe insisted on “the accurate transmission of the meaning of the text rather than the budding orators freely ranging imagination“.He introduced the first major shift in western translation theory“.Je

8、rome maintained the major terms of source text and target text, original meaning and translated meaning, the concepts of literal and dynamic translation (word for word and sense for sense“). Interpreting the original meaning correctly in order to reproduce it properly (Gentzler 1993: 95). 我吓了一跳，蝎子是多

9、么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物哲罗姆（哲罗姆（347-420）翻译不能始终字当句对，而必须采取灵活的原则。应当区别对待文学翻译与宗教翻译。前者意译，后者直译。正确的翻译必须依靠正确的理解。我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物Martin LutherLuthers aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience

10、for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German, the mother in her house, the children in the street, and the common man in the market (Robinson 1997a: 25, modified).wild, shaggy, rebellious 我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉

11、快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物马丁马丁路德路德 （1483-1546）翻译必须采用人民的语言。翻译必须注重语法和意思的联系。译者不能与语法背道而驰，但更应该注意意思的理解和表达。翻译必须遵循意译七原则。翻译必须集思广益。我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物John DrydenIn the Preface to his translation of Ovids Epistles (1680): metaphraseturning an author word by word, an

12、d line by line, from one language into another“.“paraphrase, or translation with latitudewhere the authors words are not so strictly followed but his sense”.imitation, where the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and the sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasio

13、n 我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物德莱顿（德莱顿（1631-1700）翻译是艺术翻译必须掌握原作特征翻译必须考虑读者译者必须绝对服从原作的意思，在译文的措词上可以有自由，意义上却毫无自由。翻译可以借用外来词翻译分三类：逐字译、意译、拟作我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物2. German RomanticismAt the beginning of the nineteenth centu

14、ry, a more philosophical and less empirical, formation began to open within discourses on translation theory. Philology provided a range of new and exotic texts and allowed the experts to produce translations aimed primarily at other experts, not the general public. Romanticism exalted the translato

15、r as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the genius of his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating (Bassnett-McGuire 1980: 65). The stress on both the original author and the translator as being artists was not part of traditional discourse forma

16、tions. 我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物Schlegel wrote that, in translating Homer, it was necessary to get away from the notion of literal precision so commonly associated with fidelity, because truth must be the translators highest, indeed virtually his only, mand

17、ate 我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物 Friedrich Schleiermachers On Different Methods of Translating -the major document of romantic translation theory, and one of the major documents of Western translation theory in general.Schleiermacher distinguished between the

18、interpreter (Dolmetscher) who works in the world of commerce, and the translator proper (Ubersetzer) who works in the fields of scholarship and art. 我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物For the true translator, there are only two choices: to either (1) disturb the writ

19、er as little as possible and move the reader in his direction, or (2) disturb the reader as little as possible and move the writer in his direction 我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物 Schleiermachers preference was for the former.If the target-language readers are to

20、 understand, they must grasp the spirit of the language native to the author, they must be able to gaze upon the authors inimitable patterns of thinking and meaning; but the only tools that the translator can offer them in pursuit of these goals are their own language, which nowhere quite correspond

21、s to the authors, and his own person, his own inconsistently clear understanding of, and vacillating admiration for, the author. 我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物施莱尔马赫（施莱尔马赫（1768-1834）翻译分笔译和口译翻译分真正的翻译（文学作品和科学作品的翻译，笔译）和机械的翻译（实用性的翻译，口译）翻译必须正确理解语言思维的辩证关系。翻译可以有两种途径。采用任

22、何一种都必须坚持到底。我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物3. The Early and Middle Twentieth CenturyDiscussion in English of translation theory during the first half of the twentieth century continued to be dominated by the themes of Victorian discourse on translation, literalnes

23、s, archaizing, pedantry and the production of a text of second-rate literary merit for an elite minority 我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物After the Second World War, translation theory was profoundly influenced by Noam Chomskys concepts of deep structure and surfac

24、e structure, and the first steps in machine translation. In this view translation is a recoding or change of surface structure in representation of the - non-linguistic and ultimately universal - deep structure underlying it. Chomskys theories strongly influenced the science of translating as unders

25、tood during the 1960s by Eugene Nida and later, during the late 1970s by the German school.As Snell-Hornby elsewhere explains, the German school at least in its early days, aimed at making the study of translation rigorously scientific and watertight, and, like linguistics, it adopted views and meth

26、ods of the exact sciences, in particular mathematics and formal logic. Basically, translation was viewed as linguistic transcoding or substitution, whereby Elements a1, a2, a3 of the inventory of linguistic signs L1 are replaced by Elements b1, b2, b3 of the inventory of linguistic signs L2.我吓了一跳，蝎子

27、是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物What Fawcett describes as the heroic age of linguistically oriented translation studies extends from the mid-1950s to the mid-1980s (Fawcett 1997: Foreword). Particular mention should be made of the work of J.C. Catford (1965) and Katharina

28、 Reiss (1989). These extremely valuable studies focused on the word, phrase or sentence level.我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物a list of great theoristsRoman Jakobson (雅可布逊) （布拉格学派）John Catford (卡特福德) （伦敦学派）Peter Newmark (纽马克)Eugene A Nida (奈达)Wolfram Wilss (威尔斯)我吓

29、了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物卡特福德卡特福德A Linguistic Theory of Translation运用Halliday的“阶和范畴语法”（Scale ad Category Grammar）一. 翻译的性质二. 翻译的类别三. 翻译的对等问题我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物一一translation is the replacement of textual material

30、 in one language by equivalent textual material in another language.翻译是把一种语言的文字材料替换成另一种语言的对等的翻译是把一种语言的文字材料替换成另一种语言的对等的文字材料。文字材料。关键词：对等语关键词：对等语翻译理论的中心任务：翻译理论的中心任务：defining the nature and conditions of translation equivalence (确定对等语的确定对等语的性质和条件性质和条件)我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的

31、猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物全文翻译(full translation)和部分翻译(partial translation)完全翻译 (total translation) 和有限翻译 （restricted translation）我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物对等问题对等问题一方面：翻译对等是一种以经验为依据的一方面：翻译对等是一种以经验为依据的现象。现象。行文对等（行文对等（textual equivalence）形式对等（形式对等（formal correspondence）对

32、等概率对等概率-翻译规则翻译规则在翻译中，译者要选择的不是具有在翻译中，译者要选择的不是具有“相同意相同意义义”的对等语，而应是具有相同或相似场合的对等语，而应是具有相同或相似场合特征的对等语特征的对等语我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物纽马克纽马克翻译类别翻译性质翻译规则意义的流失我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物Peter NewmarkHe argues that the central

33、 problem of translating.has always been whether to translate literally or freely. Semantic translation: is personal and individual, follows the thought processes of the author, tends to over-translate, pursues nuances of meaning, yet aims at concision in order to reproduce pragmatic impact. Communic

34、ative translation, on the other hand, attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership (Newmark 1988: 46-7). Informative and vocative (non-literary) texts require communicative tra

35、nslation; expressive (literary) texts tend more towards the semantic method of translation (Newmark 1981: 44). 我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物类别类别交际性翻译交际性翻译译作所产生的效果应力求接近原作，首先忠于译译作所产生的效果应力求接近原作，首先忠于译语和译文读者，即使原语屈从译语和译语文化，语和译文读者，即使原语屈从译语和译语文化，不给读者留下任何疑点和难懂之处，属欠额翻译不给

36、读者留下任何疑点和难懂之处，属欠额翻译语义性翻译语义性翻译屈从原语文化和原作者，翻译原文的语义，只在屈从原语文化和原作者，翻译原文的语义，只在原文的内涵意义构成理解的最大障碍时才加以解原文的内涵意义构成理解的最大障碍时才加以解释。属超额翻译释。属超额翻译直译直译死译死译我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物翻译性质翻译性质翻译既是科学，又是艺术。有标准化的译名，统一译名还有非标准化的东西我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有

37、错：表里边有一个活的生物信息流失信息流失原文涉及本国独特风俗、地理、历史的。在文体、感情色彩、抽象程度、评价尺度等方面同时对等很难译者和原作者不同的语义理论和价值观念我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物尤金尤金 奈达（奈达（1914-）Toward a Science of Translating(翻译科学探索)The Theory and Practice of Translation（翻译理论与实践）Translating Meaning（译义）我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么

38、把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物理论原则翻译的性质翻译的功能语义分析我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物理论原则理论原则语言的共性可译性差别在于对语言的需求翻译的首要任务是使读者看了译文就能一目了然。要流畅自然，读者无须原语的文化背景知识就能看懂。我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物翻译的性质翻译的性质Nida：translating co

39、nsists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. 所谓翻译，就是从语义到所谓翻译，就是从语义到文体在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现文体在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现原语的信息。译文没有绝对的对等。原语的信息。译文没有绝对的对等。reproducing the message; equivalence

40、 rather than identity; a natural equivalent; the closest equivalent; the style; the priority of contextual consistency over verbal consistency; the priority of dynamic equivalence over formal correspondence; 翻译的四个标准：达意、传神、措辞通顺自然、读者反应翻译的四个标准：达意、传神、措辞通顺自然、读者反应相似相似翻译是一种翻译是一种“再创造再创造”，而不是，而不是“再生产再生产”我吓了一

41、跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物翻译的功能翻译的功能社会语言学和语言交际功能社会语言学和语言交际功能读者为中心读者为中心灵活再现原文：语言交际的内容，交际的参与者，灵活再现原文：语言交际的内容，交际的参与者，说话写作的过程，交际使用的具体语言，传递内说话写作的过程，交际使用的具体语言，传递内容的方式。容的方式。表达功能（表达功能（expressive function）认识功能（认识功能（cognitive function）人际关系功能（人际关系功能（interpersonal function）

42、信息功能（信息功能（informative function）祈使功能（祈使功能（imperative function）司事功能（司事功能（performative function）表感功能（表感功能（emotive function）美学功能（美学功能（aesthetic function）我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物语义分析语义分析语法意义、所指意义、内涵意义语法意义、所指意义、内涵意义内涵意义内涵意义与特定的语言使用者联系在一起与特定的语言使用者联系在一起 （不同阶（不同阶层）

43、层）与使用的场合联系在一起与使用的场合联系在一起 与语言环境有关（与语言环境有关（green with envy, green worker ）我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物Contemporary timeThe first was the questioning of Chomskys linguistic theories by linguists themselves. The second was the development of a number of new and dy

44、namic fields within linguistics, such as discourse analysis, text linguistics, sociolinguistics, computational linguistics, prototype semantics, and other assorted wonders (Pym 1992: 184) 我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物 French structuralist and post-structuralist

45、 thought (Nida 2001: 110): Language is not the problem. Ideology and politics are This has led to a separation between linguistic and cultural approaches to translation in the last quarter of the twentieth century. For some translation scholars, indeed, it has seemed that strictly linguistic theorie

46、s have been superseded, as translation has come to be considered in its cultural, historical and sociological context 我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物Emergence of Translation Studiesthe systematic study of translation.not as an intrinsic part of the foreign langua

47、ge teaching process, but for its own sake The field of Translation Studies was decisively defined by the American scholar, James Holmes, in his 1972 paper on The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. There Holmes rejoiced that, there has been a new and increasing interest in translation after the

48、Second World War, particularly from the adjacent fields of linguistics, linguistic philosophy, and literary studies, but also from such seemingly more remote disciplines as information theory, logic and mathematics“Holmes divides Translation Studies into two major branches, Pure and Applied, and the

49、n sub-divides the Pure into two further sub-branches: Theoretical and Descriptive Translation Studies. 我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物Here I wish to briefly note five areas which have led to broader approaches to translation beyond the static prescriptive models

50、of the1960s: skopos theory, polysystem theory, descriptive translation theory, postcolonial theory and feminism. 我吓了一跳，蝎子是多么丑恶和恐怖的东西，为什么把它放在这样一个美丽的世界里呢？但是我也感到愉快，证实我的猜测没有错：表里边有一个活的生物Translation Studies returns the attention to the Receptor side of the diagram. Skopostheory begins by seeing translatio