考研英语大作文ppt课件.ppt

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1、段落和段落的组成段落和段落的组成l（一）（一） 段落的写作步骤段落的写作步骤l（二）（二） 段落扩展段落扩展（一）段落的写作步骤（一）段落的写作步骤l首先首先要思考这一段落的中心思想，用一要思考这一段落的中心思想，用一个完整的句子表达出来个完整的句子表达出来 (主题句主题句) , 然后然后收集能够证明和解释这个中心思想的细收集能够证明和解释这个中心思想的细节和例子。节和例子。最后最后按逻辑顺序组织安排好按逻辑顺序组织安排好这些材料，这样就有了一个段落的粗略这些材料，这样就有了一个段落的粗略草案。草案。大学英语作文一般都是说明文或议论文，大学英语作文一般都是说明文或议论文，其段落最常见的框架模式

2、如流程所示其段落最常见的框架模式如流程所示 :lTopic Sentence （主题句）主题句）l Supporting Sentence (主要扩展句主要扩展句1)l Supporting Sentence (次要扩展句次要扩展句1)l Supporting Sentence (次要扩展句次要扩展句2)l Supporting Sentence (主要扩展句主要扩展句2)l Supporting Sentence (次要扩展句次要扩展句1)l Supporting Sentence(次要扩展句次要扩展句2)lConcluding Sentence（结尾句）结尾句）例如例如lWherever

3、one lives in the city or in the country, there are some good reasons for owing a car (topic sentence ). First, cars provide the most convenient form of transportation ( development sentence1). Second, a car is a comfortable way to travel, especially in the winter time (development sentence2). 例如例如 F

4、inally, a driver is usually safe in his car when he is out at night ( development sentence3). Therefore, many people favor owning a car (concluding sentence).Back l段落的组成段落的组成l主题句主题句 ( topic sentence ) 扩展句扩展句 ( development sentence ) 结论句结论句 ( concluding sentence )（二）段落扩展（二）段落扩展主题句主题句l主题句主题句就是提出段落主题，它

5、是一个段就是提出段落主题，它是一个段落的中心，要求全段其他所有的文字都落的中心，要求全段其他所有的文字都围绕它展开。它指出了这段内容的主导围绕它展开。它指出了这段内容的主导思想。主题句既可以用在段落的开始或思想。主题句既可以用在段落的开始或中间中间, , 也可以用在段落的末尾也可以用在段落的末尾, , 但是对但是对于我们的考试来说于我们的考试来说, , 我们应该尽量把主我们应该尽量把主题句题句放置于一个段落的开始放置于一个段落的开始, , 这既有助这既有助于组织材料于组织材料, , 也可以使文章结构清楚。也可以使文章结构清楚。写好段落的主题句是写好作文的关键。写好段落的主题句是写好作文的关键。

6、l1一个好的主题句首先应该紧扣文章一个好的主题句首先应该紧扣文章的中心思想的中心思想, 把该段落的内容限定在文把该段落的内容限定在文章的中心内容之内章的中心内容之内。l例如例如: pollution是一个比较大的题目，是一个比较大的题目，一篇一篇100多字的短文根本不可能容纳它多字的短文根本不可能容纳它的全部内容，但是，通过各个段落的主的全部内容，但是，通过各个段落的主题句把内容限定在一定的范围之内，各题句把内容限定在一定的范围之内，各段的主题句都是该段落的第一句。我们段的主题句都是该段落的第一句。我们不难看出，文中三个段落的主题句都紧不难看出，文中三个段落的主题句都紧扣文章的标题，并很好地限

7、定了段落的扣文章的标题，并很好地限定了段落的内容。内容。例文例文：l pollutionl污染对人类有害污染对人类有害l为防止污染，近年来采取了一些措施。为防止污染，近年来采取了一些措施。l然而，污染问题尚未完全解决。然而，污染问题尚未完全解决。l l Pollution is harmful to human beings. Polluted water causes many kinds of diseases even take mans life. Dirty air and poisonous gas cause stinging eyes and running nose. Pol

8、lutants erode metal and buildings.l l Measures have been taken to control pollution. In recent years, legislative steps have been introduced to control pollution. Rivers are being cleaned, air is purified, and pollutants are being trapped before they are poured out of chimneys.l However, pollution p

9、roblems have not been completely solved. Some factories are still using air as a dumping place for wastes. Some lakes are still dirty and the dirty water causes fishes to die. Quite a few chimneys are still pouring smoke into the air and noise pollution remains serious. All these problems are waitin

10、g to be solved.（文章通过列举法论证各段主题句。）（文章通过列举法论证各段主题句。）l2. 好的段落主题句必须完整好的段落主题句必须完整，即能表达即能表达一个完整的思想，该段落将围绕这一主一个完整的思想，该段落将围绕这一主题句逐步展开，或定义，或论述，或分题句逐步展开，或定义，或论述，或分类类,或解释，或举例说明。因此，段落或解释，或举例说明。因此，段落主题句中必须包含段落的主旨，必须包主题句中必须包含段落的主旨，必须包含一个等待发展的思想。含一个等待发展的思想。l3. 一个好的段落主题句应该具有一定的一个好的段落主题句应该具有一定的限定性限定性，它应该限定该段落的内容不至它应该

11、限定该段落的内容不至于偏离全文的中心内容，于偏离全文的中心内容， 而且，一个而且，一个段落的容量是很有限的，如果主题句限段落的容量是很有限的，如果主题句限定的范围太宽，定的范围太宽， 主题句的内容就无法主题句的内容就无法在该段落内得以阐述清楚。在该段落内得以阐述清楚。l例如例如：Cheating on the Campus为题的作文为题的作文, 用用Cheating is popular, 或者或者Cheating is bad或者或者Cheating is understandable就过就过于笼统了于笼统了, Cheating指的是什么指的是什么? 即便是在大即便是在大学校园里学校园里,

12、cheating可以表现在考试可以表现在考试, 爱情爱情, 图图书馆等各个方面书馆等各个方面, 不确定具体的范围不确定具体的范围, 主题句主题句就形同虚设就形同虚设, 等于还是停留在题目上。等于还是停留在题目上。因此因此, 一个好的主题句一个好的主题句, 不仅要表达作者的态度不仅要表达作者的态度, 还还需要根据内容和字数方面的要求需要根据内容和字数方面的要求, 对题目的范对题目的范围进行控制和确定围进行控制和确定。l 例如例如: Cheating on the exam is popular on the campus today because of academic and profess

13、ional pressures.l4. 主题句也不能太具体主题句也不能太具体, 如果主题句太如果主题句太具体具体, 作者就无法在文字上加以展开。作者就无法在文字上加以展开。例如例如:lAmericans use too many canned, frozen, and prepackaged foods and because everything is fried in oil or butter.l上述句子作主题句显然不合适上述句子作主题句显然不合适, 因为它因为它讲述得太具体了讲述得太具体了, 最好应改为最好应改为:lAmerican food is tasteless and grea

14、sy.l5. 我们在设计我们在设计主题句时还应该注意不要主题句时还应该注意不要把太多不相关的观点包括在一个主题句把太多不相关的观点包括在一个主题句中中， 否则，整个段落就会缺乏统一性。否则，整个段落就会缺乏统一性。例如例如:lShanghai is famous for its temperate climate, its large population, and its rapid industrial development.l上句包括了三个方面的内容，难以在一上句包括了三个方面的内容，难以在一个段落中同时讲述，因此，最好只是取个段落中同时讲述，因此，最好只是取其中之一，三个观点放在三个

15、段落中论其中之一，三个观点放在三个段落中论述。述。l 6. 写主题句一般是将提示句翻译出来，但是如果写主题句一般是将提示句翻译出来，但是如果要求句是英语就可以把它扩充成主题句。要求句是英语就可以把它扩充成主题句。l 例如例如这样的一篇作文：这样的一篇作文： l Good Health l （1）Importance of good healthl （2）Ways to keep fit l （3）My own practice l 这样的作文的要求句就可以扩展成主题句。扩展这样的作文的要求句就可以扩展成主题句。扩展后三段的主题句分别为：后三段的主题句分别为： l It is very impo

16、rtant to have good health. (将名词将名词importance变成形容词变成形容词important)l There are four ways to keep fit for me.(用用there be句型句型)l My own practices are the following.（采用采用原词）原词）l7. 已经给出主题句的已经给出主题句的就不要重抄一遍了就不要重抄一遍了,紧接着紧接着往下扩展。怎么扩展呢？往下扩展。怎么扩展呢？请看例文：请看例文：l The Game I Like Bestl The game I like best is playing

17、football. As a school pupil, I used to play it with my classmates after school everyday. Now as a college student, I still play it whenever I can find time although I am busy with my studies. Furthermore, I never miss any important match shown on TV. Sometimes, I get up even at the middle of the nig

18、ht in order to watch an international game. (描述描述法法)l Playing games requires both a good physical body and real skill. To begin with, to play football well, you should be very strong and have a lot of muscles. Then you should be skillful in tackling the ball, bringing it along, passing it to and cat

19、ching it from others and, above all, scoring a goal. In short, it is physical strength and skill that make a good football player.（列举法）列举法） lPlaying games brings me many benefits. First, it can train my mind and teach me to think quickly. Second, by playing football, I learn to persevere when faced

20、with difficulties. However, the most important benefit of all is that playing football can cultivate my spirit of teamwork. For all these reasons, I enjoy playing football very much.（列举法、转折法）列举法、转折法）back扩展方法扩展方法l下面我们着重讲一讲常见的扩展方法：下面我们着重讲一讲常见的扩展方法：l第一种：第一种：列举法列举法( (Listing)Listing)。列举法是列举法是一种最为常见的段落发展

21、方法一种最为常见的段落发展方法, , 用这种用这种方法发展段落方法发展段落, , 首先要写出主题句首先要写出主题句, , 然然后列举一系列的论据对主题句所陈述的后列举一系列的论据对主题句所陈述的主题内容进行陈述和解释主题内容进行陈述和解释, , 列举的顺序列举的顺序可以按照各点内容的相对重要性可以按照各点内容的相对重要性, , 时间时间的先后或地理位置的远近等关系来进行。的先后或地理位置的远近等关系来进行。线索是：线索是：l主题主题句句firstfirst扩展句扩展句secondsecond扩扩展句展句etcetc扩展句连接词结论句扩展句连接词结论句例如:l(Topic sentence) A

22、dvertisement can be beneficial to people. (Argument 1)First, it is informative and can help people buy and sell goods. (Argument 2) Second, it can widen peoples knowledge, and make people more experienced. (Argument 3)Finally, people can enjoy themselves in watching those funny and interesting adver

23、tisement programs.l列举常用的表达方法有列举常用的表达方法有:l A.三点法：三点法：l 1) First Second Third l 2) Firstly Secondly Thirdly Lastly (Finally)l 3) 1.First of all, to begin with;2. next, then, besides, in addition, whats more, moreover, furthermore;3. most important of all, last but not the least, finally, eventually, e

24、tcl B.两点法两点法：用于较短的段落，只陈述两点。常用关用于较短的段落，只陈述两点。常用关联词语有：联词语有：l 1. For one thing, For another, l 2. In the first place, In the second place, l 3. On the one hand, On the other hand, l第二种：第二种： 举例法举例法( (Exemplification)Exemplification)。为为了阐明或支持一个观点了阐明或支持一个观点, , 举例说明是一个举例说明是一个常用而且有力的工具。在采用举例法发展常用而且有力的工具。在采用

25、举例法发展段落时段落时, , 作者往往作者往往在主题句中开门见山地在主题句中开门见山地摆出自己的观点摆出自己的观点, , 然后举出具体的事例来然后举出具体的事例来对其进行说明对其进行说明。所举的例子一般可按照时。所举的例子一般可按照时间顺序或重要性等来进行安排。关键在于间顺序或重要性等来进行安排。关键在于各个实例都要于主题密切相关各个实例都要于主题密切相关, , 具有具有典型典型性和说服力性和说服力, , 或者能够不断地深入说明或者能够不断地深入说明, , 或反映主题各个侧面。或反映主题各个侧面。l线索是：主题句线索是：主题句for examplefor example扩展句扩展句for an

26、otherfor another扩展句连接词结论扩展句连接词结论句句例如:l(The general point)Pollution is becoming more and more seriously all over the world. (example 1) For example, the poisonous gas sent off by factories and automobiles has made the air unhealthy for people to breathe. (example 2) For another example, waste water k

27、eeps pouring into rivers and lakes; as a result, many water lives are dying out. (example 3) Furthermore, everywhere we go today, we can find rubbish carelessly disposed. (结论句结论句)Pollution is, in fact, threatening our existence.l举例法常用的表达方法有举例法常用的表达方法有: las an illustration, such as, namely, that is,

28、like, say.l1) For example l2) For instance l3) Take for example（for instance）l4) To take / cite just one example,lMother love is great and selfless. To cite just one example, a thin and weak mother, as it was reported, financed her child through college by selling her blood.l 5) is just a case in po

29、int相关的，适用的相关的，适用的 l 6) can serve as an examplel 7) (Just) Consider/Look at sb., for example /instance, doing this, doing that, and doing就拿某人来说为例吧就拿某人来说为例吧, 他她做他她做，做做，做，做 l 8) An interesting / striking / typical example of is provided by the story of sb. who 有个故事是说明有个故事是说明 的有趣的有趣突出典型的例子：某人突出典型的例子：某人

30、应用应用：就拿孔繁森为例吧，他始终视人民的利：就拿孔繁森为例吧，他始终视人民的利益高于一切，他从不徇情枉法，他身体力行。益高于一切，他从不徇情枉法，他身体力行。他被视为清正廉洁的典范。他被视为清正廉洁的典范。Consider Kong Fansen, for instance, always valuing the peoples interests above everything else, never bending the law for the benefit of his relatives, and earnestly practicing what he advocates.

31、He is seen as the mirror of honesty and uprightness.Knowledge seeking and romance hunting can not go hand in hand. A striking example of the view is provided by the story of my former desk-mate who, once thought of as the most excellent student in my class, began to steer his boat of promise希望希望into

32、 the harbor of a girls love as early as when he was still in the junior middle school. Now he is drowning himself in deep-felt regret.下一页下一页应用应用：l第三种：第三种：因果法因果法( (Cause and EffectCause and Effect) )。l在人类的思维活动中在人类的思维活动中, , 人们常常会根据人们常常会根据事物的原因推断其结果事物的原因推断其结果, , 或者根据某一或者根据某一结果分析其原因。写作中的因果法正是结果分析其原因。写作中

33、的因果法正是这种思维方式在写作过程中的具体体现。这种思维方式在写作过程中的具体体现。所谓因果法所谓因果法, , 就是通过分析事物发生的就是通过分析事物发生的原因原因, ,自然地说明由此而产生的各种结自然地说明由此而产生的各种结果果, , 或者通过分析某一结果或者通过分析某一结果, , 推断导致推断导致这一结果的原因。这一结果的原因。l线索是：主题句线索是：主题句firstfirst扩展句扩扩展句扩展句展句besidesbesides扩展句扩展句moreovermoreover扩展句连接词结论句扩展句连接词结论句例如:l (The topic sentence) Nowadays there i

34、s often a misunderstanding between parents and child. (cause 1) The most obvious reason for this lack of communication is that they grew up at different times and therefore have different likes and dislikes for the things around them. (cause 2) Also the parent is often too busy to listen patiently t

35、o the explanation of the child when there is a misunderstanding. （结论句）（结论句）Both of them take it for granted that there is a generation gap.l常用原因结果句型：常用原因结果句型：l表示原因的表达方式有：表示原因的表达方式有：lbecause of, because, as, for, owing to, due to, thanks tol表示结果的表达方式有：表示结果的表达方式有：lso, therefore, as a result, consequen

36、tly, accordingly, for this reasonl第四种：第四种：描写与叙述法描写与叙述法( (Description Description and Narration)and Narration)。 l段落还可以用描述与叙述的方法来发展。段落还可以用描述与叙述的方法来发展。描写是指作者对某人、某物或事件的感描写是指作者对某人、某物或事件的感觉和印象觉和印象, , 而叙述则指作者对某个故事而叙述则指作者对某个故事和事件的讲述。描述和叙述一般按照和事件的讲述。描述和叙述一般按照时时间和空间的次序间和空间的次序, , 而这种次序关系在很而这种次序关系在很大程度上体现在它们所特有

37、的大程度上体现在它们所特有的过渡连接过渡连接词词上。用这种方法发展段落上。用这种方法发展段落, , 作者能够作者能够清楚而连贯地交代事物的本末清楚而连贯地交代事物的本末, , 从而使从而使读者可以清晰完整地理解文章的含义。读者可以清晰完整地理解文章的含义。例如：lThe first thing to do to make tea is to start boiling some water. While waiting for it to boil, you get your teapot ready, making sure to put the right amount of tea le

38、aves into it. When the water has boiled, you pour it into the pot and bring the teapot and some cups to the guests. Everyone enjoys the conversation until the tea is cool enough to drink.l第五种第五种: :定义法定义法( (definition)definition)l就是通过对某一个事物，某一个词或某就是通过对某一个事物，某一个词或某一个思想等下定义来发展段落，这是扩一个思想等下定义来发展段落，这是扩展段落

39、的诸多方法之一，也是写展段落的诸多方法之一，也是写说明文说明文常用的方法，因为说明文常常涉及到某常用的方法，因为说明文常常涉及到某一个术语、专业性词汇或抽象的概念。一个术语、专业性词汇或抽象的概念。l例：例：例如：l “Honesty is the best policy” is a well-known proverb, but it is not so easy for everyone to keep. Honesty means fairness and uprightness in our words and deeds. It is also regarded as a very

40、important virtue in our social behavior, and in our daily life. If you are honest to others, they will be kind to you. They will come to comfort you when you are in need of help. People always respect those who are honest and alienate (疏远疏远) those who are dishonest.l 作者在这段文章中用定义法解释了诚实的内涵。作者在这段文章中用定义

41、法解释了诚实的内涵。l第六种：转折对照法第六种：转折对照法l这种方法用于阐述两种相反或相对立的这种方法用于阐述两种相反或相对立的观点、态度或事实。观点、态度或事实。l线索是：主题句线索是：主题句on the one hand扩展句扩展句on the other hand扩展句扩展句连接词结论句连接词结论句其扩展模式为：其扩展模式为：l表示对照的表达方式有：表示对照的表达方式有： 1) In contrast 2) Contrary to3) In opposite4) On the contrary5) On the one hand On the other hand, 6) Every c

42、oin has two sides l表示转折的表达方式有：表示转折的表达方式有： 1) But 2) However 3) While 4) Nevertheless l5) We should also take the other side of the coin into consideration l6) There are also some disadvantagesproblems in l例如例如，Is a Test of Spoken English Necessary？l A majority of people consider it very important to

43、 hold a spoken English test. They argue that spoken English is as important as written English, for the ability of speaking, listening, reading, and writing are four indispensable elements in judging if a person has proficiency in English(观点观点A). But there are still some people who are not in favor

44、of this kind of test at all. (转折过渡转折过渡) They bear such a thought in mind that since theyre not going to go abroad, its not necessary for them at all to master spoken English. (与观点与观点A相反的观点相反的观点)l 当然，我们在运用扩展方法的时候，不要仅仅局限当然，我们在运用扩展方法的时候，不要仅仅局限于一种，也可以几种方法相结合。于一种，也可以几种方法相结合。back段落扩展的常见方法l扩展方法有六种，谨请大家记心中：

45、扩展方法有六种，谨请大家记心中：l列举、举例和因果，描述、定义与对照。列举、举例和因果，描述、定义与对照。l切记勿用一种法，根据提示去变化。切记勿用一种法，根据提示去变化。l主题、扩展、结论句，启承转合用于内。主题、扩展、结论句，启承转合用于内。l衔接得当不晦涩，你就能把高分得。衔接得当不晦涩，你就能把高分得。back三、过渡词三、过渡词l过渡词（过渡词（transitional words）：它是一）：它是一种关系指引词，是连接句与句、种关系指引词，是连接句与句、 段与段段与段的纽带，能使文章的启、承、的纽带，能使文章的启、承、 转、合融转、合融为一体。为一体。例例: l There are

46、, on the other hand, many good reasons against owning a car. First, it can be very expensive to purchase and run a car. The gas shortage has caused a big problem for drivers, and the price of fuel continues to go up each year. In addition, it costs a great deal to组段组段 maintain, repair and insure a c

47、ar. Second, owning a car can also cause worry and stress. It is exhausting to drive a car in heavy traffic. It often happens that a driver can be held up on his way because of a traffic jam. What is worse, cars are responsible for most of the smog in cities, which pollutes the environment seriously.

48、组段组段l过度词的分类根据过渡词在文章中的作过度词的分类根据过渡词在文章中的作用，大致可分为四类：用，大致可分为四类：lA. 表达表达“启启”的常用词语：用于引导的常用词语：用于引导主题句，或用于主题句的后面，引导第主题句，或用于主题句的后面，引导第一个扩展句：一个扩展句：l first, first of all, at first, in the first of place, firstly, to begin with, to start with, recently, now, at present, in recent years, etc. 复合句开启论述话题 1.1With t

49、he rapid development of economy, great changes have taken place in our cultural and social life. 1.2lWhen asked about what is the biggest problem today, many people say that it is the serious energy. They are afraid that the world will soon run out of oil and run short of food.1.3lWhen it comes to i

50、nternational sport such as the Olympic and the World Cup soccer game, some people believe that it creates goodwill between nations and that if countries play games together, they will learn how to live together. 1.4lRecently the problem of development vs. environment has now been brought into wide f