二语习得SecondLanguageAcquisition.ppt

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1、III. Second Language Acquisition,1. What is Second Language Acquisition and Research? 2. Theories of L2 learning Linguistic Perspectives Psychological Perspectives (behaviorism, cognitive psychology, connectionism, multidimensional model) Interactionist Perspective Sociocultural Perspectives 3. Lear

2、ner Language 语际语 4. Instruction and Second Language Acquisition,Second Language Acquisition,1. What is Second Language Acquisition and Research? Second language acquisition research has both theoretical and practical importance. Theoretical importance: related to our understanding of how language is

3、 represented in the mind and whether there is a difference between the way language is acquired and processed and the way other kinds of information are acquired and processed. 74,Second Language Acquisition,Practical importance: arises from the assumption that an understanding of how language are l

4、earned will lead to more effective teaching practice. In a broader context, a knowledge of second language acquisition may help educational policy makers set more realistic goals for programs for both foreign language courses and the learning of the majority language by minority language children an

5、d adults. 75,Second Language Acquisition,1. The Grammar-Translation Method (structuralism) 2. The Audio-Lingual Method (听说法) (structuralism, behaviorism s-r) 3. Communicative Language Teaching （交际法语言教学） (cognitive science, linguistic competent, communicative competent) 4. Content-based, Task-based A

6、pproaches （学科性方法） (任务性方法) (cognitive science, functional view of language, comprehensible input, output, motivation) 75+1,Second Language Acquisition,Gass s framework for investigating L2 acquisition explicit knowledge L2 noticed comprehended intake implicit L2 Input input input knowledge output,Sec

7、ond Language Acquisition,Noticing In order for some feature of language to be acquired, it is not enough for the learner to be exposed to it through comprehensible input. The learner must actually notice what it is in that input that makes the meaning. This idea has raised a considerable amount of i

8、nterest in the context of instructed second language learning. 86xx p15,Second Language Acquisition,Noticing is of considerable theoretical importance because it accounts for which features in the input are attended to and so become intake. For noticed input to become intake, learners have to carry

9、out a comparison of what they have observed in the input and what they themselves are typically producing on the basis of their current interlanguage system. This is a conscious process, referred to as noticing the gap.,Second Language Acquisition,Implicit learning is coming to learn the underlying

10、structure of a complex stimulus environment by a process which takes place naturally, simply and without conscious operations. Explicit learning is a more conscious operation where the individual makes and tests hypotheses.,Second Language Acquisition,The relationship between explicit and implicit k

11、nowledge, then, continues to be a key issue. One possibility, is that explicit knowledge functions as a facilitator, helping learners to notice features in the input which they would otherwise miss and also to compare what they notice with what they produce. In a sense, explicit knowledge may contri

12、bute to intake enhancement, but it will only be one of several factors that does this.,Second Language Acquisition,2. Theories of L2 learning Internal and external factors in the learning process a. Some linguistics: Language acquisition is based on the presence of a specialized module of human mind

13、 containing innate knowledge of principles common to all languages. 76,Second Language Acquisition,b. In contrast, most psychologists have argued that language is processed by general cognitive mechanisms that are responsible for a wide range of human learning and information processing and requires

14、 no specialized module. 77,Second Language Acquisition,A. Linguistic Perspectives UG grammar LAD: Chomsky inferred that children must have an innate language faculty. This faculty, originally referred to as the language acquisition device. And later UG which was said to contain general principles un

15、derlying all languages. 语言习得机制. 二十世纪60年代和70年代乔姆斯基及其他学者认为每一个正常的人生来就有一个语言习得机制。语言习得机制包括人类语言本质及结构的基本知识。 78,Second Language Acquisition,UG 普遍语法 According to UG theory acquiring a language means applying the principles of UG grammar to particular language, e.g. English, French or German, and learning whic

16、h value is appropriate for each parameter. 根据普遍语法理论，习得一种语言意味着将普遍语法的原则应用于某一具体的语言，如英语，法语或德语，并理解哪个值适用于哪个参数。 79xx,Second Language Acquisition,In the second language acquisition the investigations have centered around the resetting of parameters. For example, Japanese speakers acquiring English would nee

17、d to reset the head parameter from a head-last to a head-first position. eg. watashiwa Nihonjin desu 第二语言习得的调查以参数的重新设定为主。例如说日语的人学英语就得重新设定中心参数,使之从中心词为后,调整至中心词为先。 79xx,Second Language Acquisition,UG principle The principle of structure-dependency（结构依存关系）which states that language is organized in such

18、a way that it crucially depends on the structural relationships between elements in a sentence (such as words, morphemes, etc.) Examples: (a) She bought a new car yesterday. (b) (My friend) bought a new car yesterday. (c) (The friend that I met in America last year) bought a new car yesterday. (d) (

19、The friend I am closest to and who was so supportive when I lost my job two years ago) bought a new car yesterday. 79+,Second Language Acquisition,Your cat is friendly. Is your cat friendly? The car hit the girl. The girl was hit by the car. Structure-dependency can therefore be put forward as a uni

20、versal principle of language: whenever elements of the sentence are moved to form passive, questions, or whatever, such movement takes account of the structural relationships of the sentence rather than the linear order of words. 79+,Second Language Acquisition,The UG theory claims that the fact tha

21、t children never use computationally simple rules based on linear ordering, but instead use computationally complex structure-dependent rules, is because the hierarchical nature of human language is part of the human mind, and does not have to be learnt as such.,Second Language Acquisition,Parameter

22、 If the structure-dependency principle seems common to all languages, which are all organized hierarchically in terms of phrases (Noun-Phrases, Verb Phrase, Prepositional-phrase, etc.), there are many other rules which differ between languages. Otherwise, all languages would work in the same way, wh

23、ich is obviously not the case. This is where parameters come in.,Second Language Acquisition,The head parameter deals with the way in which phrases themselves are structured. Each phrase has a central element, called a head; in the case of a Noun-Phrase, the head is the noun, in the case of a Verb-P

24、hrase it is the verb, in the case of a Prepositional-Phrase, it is the preposition, and so on.,Second Language Acquisition,For example, in the Noun-phrase the girl with blue trousers, the head-noun girl appears to the left of the complement with blue trousers; in the Verb-Phrase hit the girl, the he

25、ad hit appears to the left of its complement the girl; in the Prepositional-Phrase with blue trousers, the head with is on the left of its complement blue trousers. (head-parameter),Second Language Acquisition,English is a head-first (中心词位于片语之首)language, because the head of the phrase always appear

26、before its complements. Japanese, on the other hand, is a head-last language, because the complements precede the head inside phrases. Nihon ni Japan in (head-last) 中心词位于片语之尾,Second Language Acquisition,Three ways of looking at UG (1) UG operates in the same way for L2 as it does for L1. The learner

27、s knowledge of L1 is irrelevant. (2) The learners Core Grammar is fixed and UG is no longer available to the L2, particularly not to the adult learner. (3) UG is partly available but it is only one factor in the acquisition of L2. There are other factors and they may interfere with the UG influence.

28、 80,Second Language Acquisition,B. Psychological Perspectives a. behaviorism For much of the first half of the twentieth century, behaviorism dominated psychology and education and, consequently, theories of L2 learning and teaching. Behaviorism was based on the view that all learning including lang

29、uage learning occurs through a process of imitation, practice, reinforcement and habit formation. 81xx,Second Language Acquisition,Behaviorism came under attack when Chomsky questioned the notion that children learn their first language by repeating what they hear in the surrounding environment. He

30、argued that children produce novel and creative utterances ones that they would never have heard in their environment. 82xx,Second Language Acquisition,b. Cognitive Psychology A branch of psychology which deals with the study of the nature and learning of systems of knowledge, particularly those pro

31、cesses involved in thought, perception, comprehension, memory, and learning. In recent years cognitive psychology has been related to mentalistic approaches to linguistics, especially Chomskys TG grammar, which links language structure to the nature of human cognitive processes. 83,Second Language A

32、cquisition,Cognitive psychologists hypothesized that second language acquisition, like other learning, requires the learners attention and effort whether or not the learner is fully aware of what was being attended to. Some information processing theories suggested that language, like other skilled

33、activity, is first acquired through intentional learning of what is called declarative knowledge, and then, through practice, the declarative knowledge can become “procedural knowledgeOnce language itself is largely automatic, attention can be focused on the content. The information processing model

34、 offers a useful explanation as to why learners in the initial phases of learning seem to put so much effort into understanding and producing language. 83+1,Second Language Acquisition,“Declarative knowledge 陈述性知识(factual knowledge, in cognitive psychology and learning theory) vs. procedural knowled

35、ge. 过程性知识. Declarative knowledge is information that consists of consciously known facts, concepts or ideas that can be stored as propositions. For example, an account of the tense system in English can be presented as a set of statements, rules, or facts, i.e. it can be learned as declarative knowl

36、edge (factual knowledge). This can be contrasted with procedural knowledge, that is knowledge concerning things we know how to do but which are not consciously known, such as “how to ride a bicycle”, or how to speak German”. 84,Second Language Acquisition,Procedural knowledge is acquired gradually t

37、hrough practice, and underlies the learning of skills. Many aspects of second language learning consist of procedural rather than declarative knowledge. Other theorists make a similar contrast between controlled and automatic processing. controlled processing (not necessarily intentional) 授控处理(e.g.

38、Learn to drive; learn English) automatic processing (occurring quickly and with minimal attention and effort)自动处理( e.g. drive to carry out a task; use English to communicate) 85,Second Language Acquisition,The learners four tasks 1. Analysis The learner has to segment (切分成语段）the stream of acoustic s

39、ignals into constituent（构成成份） units and to bring the latter into line with the parallel information on concurrent events which constitutes the situational context of the utterance. 2. Synthesis The learner has to try to put the sounds and words he has leant together in order to produce and comprehen

40、d L2 utterances. 86,Second Language Acquisition,3. Embedding (嵌入） The news that (he had got married) surprised his friends. The learner has to make utterances fit the contextsituational and linguistic in which they occur. This requires a sort of balance of linguistic and contextual information. 4. M

41、atching The learner must continuously compare his current language variety with the target variety. 87,Second Language Acquisition,c. Connectionism 连接主义 指将一种基于数字计算而不是符号操作、模拟认知功能的计算框架应用于语言学。模拟假设在大脑中起作用的各种结构和过程，网络的处理单位叫做神经元或节点,每一个单位从与其连接的其他单位获取信息，从而或被激活或被抑制。 87xx,Second Language Acquisition,Many conne

42、ctionism studies provide evidence to support associative accounts of learning. There is growing interest in this explanation for second language acquisition. Related to this approach is the observation that much of the language that even highly proficient speakers produce consists of chunks or strin

43、gs of language that have a high probability of occurring together. Researchers working within these frameworks are proposing that language is represented in the mind as a very large number of linguistic units with varying degrees of likelihood of co-occurrence, rather than as a set of linguistic rul

44、es for creating novel sentences. 88xxeg,Second Language Acquisition,xx d. Multidimensional Model 多维模型 The syntactic and morphological features were referred to as developmental. Other features referred to as variational, appeared to be learned by some but not all learners and, in any case, did not a

45、ppear to be learned in a fixed sequence. 89,Second Language Acquisition,Developmental: Second language learners acquire certain syntactic and morphological features of the L2 in predictable stages. Variational: L2 is not learned in a fixed sequence. 90-,Second Language Acquisition,Because each stage

46、 reflected an increase in complexity, a learner had to grasp one stage before moving to the next, and it was not possible to skip a stage. One of the pedagogical implications drawn from the research related to the Multidimensional Model is the Teachability Hypothesis that learners can only be taught

47、 what they are psycholinguistically ready to learn. (e.g. present tense, present continuous tense, future tense, past tense, present perfect tense) 90,Second Language Acquisition,C. Interactionist Perspectives (互动论) Some theorists who work primarily within a second language acquisition framework ass

48、ume that a great deal of language learning takes place through social interaction, at least in part because interlocutors adjust their speech to make it more accessible to learners. L1 studies showed that children are often exposed to a specialized speech which is tailored to their linguistic and cognitive abilities