语言学第二章幻灯片.ppt

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1、语言学第二章第1页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二The Study of Sound Classification and transcriptionn Outline n2.0.Introductionn2.1.Speech production and perceptionn2.2.What is phonetics?n2.3.Three branches:n2.4.How human produces speech sounds?n2.5.Phonetic features:voiced/voiceless;nasal/oral;elision/assimilationn2.6.C

2、onsonants&Vowelsn2.7.Phonetic transcription第2页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二 2.0 Introduction n During your freshmens year,by taking the English Pronunciation and Intonation course,you have acquired some basic knowledge of the sounds of language,such as n(1)English phonemes(音素)(Classification of English Vowels(

3、20)and Consonants(28):)nFront Vowels:/i:,i,e,/;nBack vowels:/a:,o,o:,u,u:/nCentral vowels:/v,:/nDiphthongs:/ei,ai,oi,i,u,u,au/;nPlosive consonants:/p,b,t,d,k,g/nFricative consonants:/f,v;,th;s,z;sh,;r,h/nAffricate consonants:/tsh,dij;tr,dr;ts,dz/nNasal consonants:/m,n,ng/nLateral conaonants:/l/nSemi

4、-vowels:/w,j/第3页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二 2.0 Introductionn(2)sound clusters;n(3)implete plosion,nasal and lateral plosion;n(4)weak forms;n(5)pause;n(6)liaison,n(7)stress and stress shift;n(8)linking,elision and contraction;n(9)assimilation and dissimilation;n(10)rhythm;n(11)intonation(rising,falling,fall-

5、rise tones;combined intonations and tone units;the intonations of questions-tags,vocatives,parentheses,reporting phrases,etc.)第4页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二 2.0 Introductionn However,what we have acquired is just the practical aspect of sound study and it is very useful for us to improve our spoken language,

6、esp.our oral English.Here,the study of sounds of language tries to help us have a deeper understanding of how to pronounce the individual sounds and why it is pronounced in this way or that way,so that we have a deeper understanding of what language is and how it works.第5页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二2.1 Speec

7、h production and perceptionnLanguage is a“system of vocal symbols”.n Speech sounds had existed long before writing was ninvented and the study of speech sounds is a major part of linguistics.nWe will begin with the study of speech sounds(phonetics),nand then go on to the study of sound patterns(phon

8、ology)n Speech-speechn Production transmission perceptionn (Speaker A)sound waves (speaker B)n From the above,we can imagine easily,the speech sound is articulated by A speaker A,then transmitted to and received by Speaker B,consequently,a speech sound goes through a three-step process as the above

9、language communicative process.第6页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二 2.1 Speech production and perceptionn Although most students do not like to learn phonetics and phonology for its difficulty and boredom,nwith some phonetic knowledge,we can give a much more precise description to speech sounds;n with some phonolo

10、gical knowledge,we can become more aware of the functions of sounds in different languages.第7页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二2.2 Classification of Sound Studies:第8页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二(1).Phonetics,Phonemics and Phonologyn Phonetics and phonemics are both concerned with the same aspect of language-the speech sound

11、s.But they differ in that they approach the subject from two different points of view.n In phonetics,we study the most concrete,directly observable aspect of language-sounds,dealing with the characteristics of speech sounds and providing methods for their description,classification,and transcription

12、.n But the sounds of language are organized into a system.The study of this system is known as phonemics,in phonemics,we talk about how phonemes function in language,and the relationships among the different phonemics,in other words,we study the abstract side of the sounds of language.Its a related

13、but a different subject.n Phonology is the study of all aspects of the sounds and sound system of a language.It includes phonetics and phonemics.第9页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二(2)Phonology and phoneticsn To be specific,the study of speech sounds is partitioned between two distinct but related disciplines,phon

14、ology and phonetics.While both are related to the study of sounds,they differ in their approach and focus.n Phonetics studies how speech sounds are made,transmitted and received.It is concerned with all the speech sounds used in all human languages:how they are produced,how they differ from each oth

15、er,what phonetic features they possess,how they can be classified,etc.n Phonology,is the study of the sound systems of a particular language.It aims to discover speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convery meaning in linguistic communication.第10页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星

16、期二(2)Phonology and phoneticsne.g.leap and peelnphonetically,both ls in the two words are quite distinct,one is the clear l(the part of the tongue that is raised is very close to the front portion of the roof of the mouth.)and the other the dark l(the part of the tongue that is raised towards the roo

17、f of the mouth is much further back.)nPhonologically,these two sounds are fundamentally the same,since they have one and the same function in communication,in distinguishing between words and meanings despite their difference in pronunciation,such as leaf,quilt,feel,etc.nThat is,phonology is concern

18、ed with the study of the sound system of a particular language,and so the conclusions we reach about the phonology of one language should not be generalized into the study of another language.What is true in one language may not be true in another language.第11页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二 2.3.Phonetics:nThe s

19、cience which studies the characteristics of human sound-making,esp.speech sounds and provides methods for their description,classification and transcription n The study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages is called phonetics.n Speech sound:units in the language system which expres

20、s ones thoughts or feelings in a systematic way.第12页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二 2.3.Phonetics:nThe task of phonetics is to identify what are speech sounds in a language,and then to study their characteristics.n knowing a language includes knowing what sounds are in the language and how they may be gathered t

21、o form meaningful units.n Phonetic part will discuss the speech sounds of the English language,how they are produced,and how they may be characterized.第13页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二Three branches of Phonetics1.Articulatory phonetics -from the point of view of the speakerHow a speech sound is produced;which

22、vocal organs are involved;how they coordinate.2.Auditory phonetics -from the point of view of the hearer The impression a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear,the auditory nerve and the brain.3.Acoustic phonetics -from the point of view of the speech sound The physical properties

23、of speech sounds,as transmitted between mouth and ear.We will concentrate only on Articulatory Phonetics,which deals with how sounds are produced and ignore the other areas of study.第14页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二2.3.1 Articulators and their functions:nTo understand the nature of a language,it is necessary t

24、o understand the nature of its speech sounds and how they are produced.nAll the sounds we make during speaking are the result of muscles contracting,creating the flow of air by way of the lung,chest,wind pipe,vocal cords,vocal tract,pharynx,larynx,mouth,and nostrils.nIn order to learn how speech sou

25、nds are produced,it is necessary to become familiar with the different parts of the vocal tract.第15页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二2.3.1 Articulators and their functions:nThe different parts are called organs of speech of articulators,mainly including npharynx,nvelum or soft palate,nhard palate,nalveolar ridge o

26、r alveolum,ntongue,nteeth(upper and lower),n lips,nlarynx,jaws and the noses and the nasal cavity.第16页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二 Speech organsn To understand the nature of a language,it is necessary to understand the nature of its speech sounds and how they are produced.n Speech organs are those parts of th

27、e human body involved in the production of speech.n n The primary function is to fulfill the basic biological needs of breathing and eating;besides,by considerably evolutionary justification to fulfill the special function efficiently for the act of speech.n The lung,the trachea,the throat,the nose,

28、the mouthn n Inside the mouth:tongue(tip,blade,front,back,root,uvula小舌,maxilla上颌骨 and mandible 下颌)and various parts of palate(hard/soft palate,alveolar ridge齿龈):n Inside the throat:pharynx咽,larynx 喉,vocal cords(or vocal cords)声带第17页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二n The three cavities of vocal tract:nthe pharynx(p

29、haryngeal cavity),mouth(oral cavity)and nose(nasal cavity)n Pulmonic sounds(肺闭塞音):nLung-airstream-speech sounds-bronchioles and bronchi-trachean The upper parts of the pharynx connects to the oral and nasal cavitiesn The soft palate can be lower to allow air to pass through the nasal cavity.When the

30、 oral cavity is at the same time blocked,a nasal sound is produced.n Tongue is the most flexible part of speech organs.In phonetics,the tongue is divided into five parts:the tip,the blade,the front,the back and the root.n Ejectives,implosives and clicks are produced without airstreams from the lungs

31、.Such sounds are labeled“Non-pulmonic”sounds.第18页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二How do human produce speech sounds?The vocal organsInitiator of the air-streamLung/pharynxProducer of the voiceVocal cordsResonating cavitiesPharynxNasal cavityOral cavityFig.1第19页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二Fig.2 The Vocal OrgansAlveolar Ridg

32、eNasal CavityLipsTeethHard PlatateSoft PlatateUvulaTipBladeFrontTongueBack of TonguePharynxVocal CordsLarynx第20页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二2.3.2 voiced and voiceless soundsn When the vocal cords are spread apart,the air-stream from the lungs is not obstructed at the space between vocal cords and passes freel

33、y.The sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless sounds,such as/p,t,k,s/in words as seepsi:p,seat si;t,and seeksi:k.n When the vocal cords are drawn together,the air-stream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate.Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced sounds,such a

34、s/b,d,g,z/in words as cobkob,codkod,cogkog,and dazedeiz.n The voiced/voiceless distinction is a very phonetic feature of English.第21页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二2.3.3.Nasal and oral soundsn When the nasal passage is blocked by closing the nose so that the air can only escape through the mouth,sounds produced

35、this way are called oral sounds,suah as/p,b/;nWhen air escapes through the nose as well as the mouth,sounds produced this way are called nasal sounds,such as/m,n,ng/in English.These consonants are usually voiced.nNasal/oral phonetic features can classify all speech sounds into four classes:voiced,vo

36、iceless,nasal and oral,One sound must choose two of these features as the following chart of speech sound classes:Oral sounds Nasal sounds Voiced sounds b,d,g m,n,ng Voiceless sounds p,t,k 第22页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二2.3.4.Classification of English speech sounds;nThe sound segments are grouped into Conson

37、ants and vowels.nConsonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.nA vowel is produced without such obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.第23页，共68页，编辑

38、于2022年，星期二 Consonants:-the sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the airstream at some point of the vocal tract.nConsonants:The categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors.nThe most important of these factors are:n(a)Manners of articulation:the actu

39、al relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract;n(b)Places of articulation:where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.See Table 1:A chart of the English consonant 第24页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期

40、二1.Places of articulation:the different parts of the vocal organs involved in the production of consonants.Bilabial,labio-dental,dental,alveolar,retroflex,palato-alveolar,palatal,velar,uvular,glottal2.Manners of articulation:the degree of obstructions,complete,partial,or a mere narrowing.Nasal,trill

41、,tap/flap,lateral,fricative,approximant,affricate3.Voicing:voiceless vs.voiced第25页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二1)Manners of articulation:n There are several basic ways in which articulation can be accomplished:the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period;they may nar

42、row the space considerably;or they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.n 1)Stop(or plosive):complete closure of the articulators involved so that the airstream can not escape through the mouth.n If the air is stopped in the oral cavity but the soft palate is down so th

43、at it can go out through the nasal cavity,the sound produced is a nasal stop,otherwise it is an oral stop.n Although both types of sounds are stops,phoneticians have retained the term STOP to indicate an oral stop and used the term NASAL to indicate a nasal stop.nIn English,b p t d k g are stops and

44、 m n ng are nasals.第26页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二n2)Fricative:close approximation of two articulators so that the air-stream is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced.nf v th zh s z sh j h are fricatives in English.n3)(Median)approximant:an articulation in which one articulator is close to a

45、nther,but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent air-stream is produced.w j r n4)Lateral(approximant):obstruction of the air-stream at a point along the center of the oral tract,with incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mou

46、th.l第27页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二n5)A Trill(Roll)is produced when an articulator is set vibrating by the air-stream.r n6)If only one vibration is produced,i.e.the tongue makes a single tap against the alveolar ridge,the sound is called a tap or a flap.n7)Affricates involve more than one of these manners of

47、 articulation in that they consist of a stop followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at same place of articulation.In English,the“ch”if church and the“j”of jet are both affricates.第28页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二2)Places of articulation n1)Bilabial:made with the two lips.p b m w.n2)Labi-o-dental:made w

48、ith the lower lip and the upper front teeth.f v n3)Dental:made by the tongue tip or blade(depending on the accent or language)and the upper front teeth.,zhn4)Alveolar;made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.t d n s z r l n5)Post alveolar:made with the tongue tip and the back of the

49、alveolar ridge.sh j 第29页，共68页，编辑于2022年，星期二n6)Retroflex:made with the tongue tip or blade curled back(retroflexed)so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.rn7)Palatal:made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate

50、.jn8)Velar:made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.Velar stop k g ,velar nasal ng n9)Uvular:made with the back of the tongue and the uvula,the short projection of soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum.n10)Pharygeal:made with the root of the tongue and the walls of the