人工智能原理人工智能原理 (28).pdf

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1、Artificial IntelligenceArtificial Intelligence2Artificial Intelligence Part 1.Basics Part 2.Searching Part 3.Reasoning Part 4.Planning Part 5.LearningContents:Artificial Intelligence3Part 2.Searching 3.Solving Problems by Search 4.Local Search and Swarm Intelligence 5.Adversarial Search 6.Constraint

2、 Satisfaction ProblemsContents:Artificial Intelligence4Objectives 教学目的5.Adversarial Search To examine the problems that arise when we try to plan ahead in a world where other agents are planning against us.去考察这样一些会发生的问题，当我们试图在某个环境预先规划时，其他智能体也正在针对我们做规划。Artificial Intelligence55.Adversarial SearchCont

3、ents:5.1.Games 5.2.Optimal Decisions in Games 5.3.Alpha-Beta Pruning 5.4.Imperfect Real-time Decisions 5.5.Stochastic Games 5.6.Monte-Carlo Methods Artificial Intelligence:Searching:Adversarial Search6Search vs.Adversarial Search 搜索与对抗搜索5.1.GamesSearch 搜索Adversarial Search 对抗搜索Single agent 单智能体Multi

4、ple agents多智能体Solution is(heuristic)method for finding goal.解是寻找目标的（启发式）方法Solution is strategy(strategy specifies move for every possible opponent reply).解是策略（指定对每个可能对手回应的行动策略）Heuristics can find optimal solution.启发式法可以找到最优解Time limits force an approximate solution.时间受限被迫执行一个近似解Evaluation function:e

5、stimate of cost from start to goal through given node.评价函数：穿过给定节点从起始到目标的代价估计Evaluation function:evaluate“goodness”of game position.评价函数：评估博弈局势的“好坏”Artificial Intelligence:Searching:Adversarial Search7 Definitions of Game theory 博弈论的定义 Study of strategic decision making.Specifically,study of mathemat

6、ical models of conflict and cooperation between intelligent rational decision-makers.研究战略决策制定。具体来说，研究智能理性决策者之间的冲突与合作的数学模型。An alternative term is interactive decision theory.一个可替代的术语是交互式决策理论。Applications of Game theory 博弈论的应用 Economics,political science,psychology,logic,computer science,and biology.经

7、济学、政治学、心理学、逻辑、计算机科学、以及生物学。Behavioral relations and decision science,including both humans and non-humans(puters).行为关系与决策科学，包括人类与非人类（如计算机等）。Adversarial Search often Known as Games 对抗搜索通常称为博弈5.1.GamesArtificial Intelligence:Searching:Adversarial Search8 Machines(players)need“human-like”intelligence.机器

8、（玩家）需要“类人”的智能。Requiring to make decision within limited time.要求在有限的时间内进行决策。Features of games:博弈的特征：Games are Good Problems for AI 博弈是AI研究的好材料5.1.GamesTwo,or more players(agents)Turn-taking vs.simultaneous movesPerfect information vs.imperfect informationDeterministic vs.stochasticCooperative petitiv

9、e Zero-sum vs.non zero-sum两个、或多个玩家（智能体）轮流、与同步行动完全信息、与不完全信息确定性、与随机合作式、与对抗式零和、与非零和Artificial Intelligence:Searching:Adversarial Search9Zero Sum vs.Non-zero Sum 零和与非零和博弈5.1.Games Zero sum games 零和博弈 Agents have opposite utilities.智能体之间是对立的方式。Pure competition:win-lose,its sum is zero.纯竞争：输赢、其和为零。Non-zer

10、o sum games 非零和博弈 Agents have independent utilities.智能体之间是自主的方式。Cooperation,indifference,competition,.合作、中立、竞争、Win-win,win-lose or lose-lose,its sum is not zero.双赢、输赢、或双输，其和不为零。Artificial Intelligence:Searching:Adversarial Search10 Two members of a criminal gang are arrested and imprisoned.Each pris

11、oner is given the opportunity either to:betray the other by testifying that the other committed the crime,or to cooperate with the other by remaining silent.Here is the offer:有两个犯罪集团的成员被逮捕和监禁。每个囚徒只有二选一的机会：揭发对方并证明其犯罪，或者与对方合作保持沉默。惩罚方式如下：If A and B each betray the other,each of them serves 2 years in p

12、rison.若A和B彼此揭发对方，则每个囚徒监禁2年。If A betrays B but B remains silent,A will be set free and B will serve 3 years in prison(and vice versa).若A揭发B而B保持沉默，则A被释放而B监禁3年（反之亦然）。If A and B both remain silent,both of them will only serve 1 year in prison.若A和B都保持沉默，则他们仅被监禁1年。Example:Prisoners Dilemma 囚徒困境5.1.GamesAr

13、tificial Intelligence:Searching:Adversarial Search11Games are Interesting but Too Hard to Solve博弈有趣但难以求解5.1.GamesE.g.,Chess:average branching factor 35,each player often go to 50 moves,so search tree has about 35100or 10154nodes!例如，国际象棋：平均分支数约等于35，每个对弈者常常走50多步，故该搜索树约有35100或10154个节点！Games,like the re

14、al world,therefore require the ability to make some decision even when calculating the optimal decision is infeasible.博弈，与现实世界相似，因而当无法算计出最优决策时，需要某种决策的能力。Game-playing research has spawned a number of interesting ideas on how to make the best possible use of time.博弈的研究已经产生了大量的有趣思想，即如何尽可能的利用时间。Artifici

15、al Intelligence:Searching:Adversarial Search12Types of Games 博弈的类型5.1.GamesDeterministic 确定性Stochastic 随机性Perfect information(fully observable)完全信息（可完全观测）Chess CheckersGoOthello国际象棋西洋跳棋围棋黑白棋BackgammonMonopoly西洋双陆棋大富翁(a)Checkers西洋跳棋(b)Othello黑白棋(c)Backgammon西洋双陆棋(d)Monopoly大富翁Artificial Intelligence:

16、Searching:Adversarial Search13(g)Scrabble拼字游戏Types of Games 博弈的类型5.1.GamesDeterministic 确定性Stochastic 随机性Imperfect information(partially observable)不完全信息（不可完全观测）StrategoBattleships西洋陆军棋海战棋BridgePokerScrabble桥牌扑克拼字游戏(f)Battleships海战棋(e)Stratego西洋陆军棋Artificial Intelligence:Searching:Adversarial Search

17、14Origins of Game Playing Algorithms 博弈算法的起源5.1.Games1912Ernst Zermelo恩斯特策梅洛Minimax algorithm最小最大算法1949Claude Shannon克劳德香农Chess playing with evaluation function,selective search用评价函数和选择性搜索下国际象棋1956John McCarthy约翰麦卡锡Alpha-beta searchAlpha-beta搜索1956Arthur Samuel亚瑟塞缪尔Checkers program that learns its o

18、wn evaluation function学习自身的评价函数的西洋跳棋程序 Ernst Zermelo(18711953),a German logician and mathematician.Claude Shannon(19162001),an American mathematician,and cryptographer known as“the father of information theory”.John McCarthy(1927-2011),an American computer scientist and cognitive scientist,and one o

19、f the founders of AI.Arthur Samuel(1901-1990),an American pioneer of computer gaming,AI,and ML.Artificial Intelligence:Searching:Adversarial Search15Game Playing Algorithms Today 博弈算法的进展5.1.GamesCheckers西洋跳棋Solved in 20072007年已解决Chess国际象棋IBM Deep Blue defeated Kasparov in 1997IBM深蓝于1997年战胜了卡斯帕罗夫Go围棋

20、Google AlphaGo beat Lee Sedol,a 9 dan professional in Mar.2016谷歌AlphaGo于2016年3月战胜了9段职业棋手李世乭Computers are better than humans 计算机优于人类Backgammon西洋双陆棋TD-Gammon used reinforcement learning to learn evaluation functionTD-Gammon使用了强化学习方法来得到评价函数Bridge桥牌Top systems use Monte-Carlo simulation and alpha-beta s

21、earch顶级的系统使用蒙特卡罗仿真和alpha-beta搜索Computers are competitive with top human players 计算机与顶级人类玩家媲美Artificial Intelligence:Searching:Adversarial Search16 Feature 特点deterministic,perfect information,turn-taking,two players,zero-sum.确定性、完整信息、轮流、两个玩家、零和。Calling the two players:将两个玩家称为：MAX,MIN.MAXmoves first,a

22、nd then they take turns moving,until the game is over.MAX先走棋，然后轮流走棋，直到博弈结束。At game end 博弈结束时 winner:award points胜者：奖励点数 loser:give penalties.败者：给予处罚Two Players Games 两个玩家博弈5.1.GamesArtificial Intelligence:Searching:Adversarial Search17PLAYER(s)Formally Defined as a Search Problem 形式化定义为搜索问题5.1.Games

23、Initial state,specifies how the game is set up at the start.初始状态，指定博弈开始时的设定。Defines which player has the move in a state.定义哪个玩家在某状态下动作。Returns the set of legal moves in a state.返回某个状态下的合法动作。Transition model,defines the result of a move.转换模型，定义一步动作的结果。Terminal test,true when the game is over and fals

24、e otherwise.终止检测，博弈结束时为true，否则为false。Utility function,defines the value in state s for a player p.效用函数，定义在状态s、玩家为p的值。S0ACTIONS(s)UTILITY(s,p)TERMINAL-TEST(s)RESULT(s,a)Artificial Intelligence:Searching:Adversarial Search18Example:Game Tree of Tic-tac-toe 井字棋的博弈树5.1.Games Part of the tree,giving alternating moves by MIN(O)and MAX(X).部分博弈树，MIN(O)和 MAX(X)之间交替走子 MAXmoves first.MAX先走 The game tree is relatively small,fewer than 9!=362,880 nodes.该博弈树相对较小，少于9!=362,880个节点