胡壮麟语言学教程笔记重点.docx

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1、?语言学教程?重难点学习提示 第一章语言的性质 语言的定义：语言的根本特征任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性；语言的功能应酬、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为；语言的起源神授说，人造说，进化说等。 第二章 语言学 语言学定义；研究语言的四大原那么穷尽、一致、简洁、客观；语言学的根本概念口语及书面语、共时及历时、语言及言学、语言能力及言行运用、语言潜势及语言行为；普通语言学的分支语音、音位、语法、句法、语义；语言学的应用语言学及语言教学、语言及社会、语言及文字、语言及心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学等。 第三章 语音学 发音器官的英文

2、名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式及宽式标音等。 第四章 音位学 音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音词重音、句子重音、音高和语调等。 第五章 词法学 词法的定义；曲折词及派生词；构词法合成及派生；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素词根，词缀和词干等。 第六章 词汇学 词的定义；语法词及词汇词；变词及不变词；封闭词及开放词；词的识别；习语及搭配。 第七章句法 句法的定义；句法关系；构造；成分；直接成分分析法；并列构造及附属构造；句子成分；范畴性，数，格；一致；

3、短语，从句，句子扩展等。 第八章 语义学 语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类传统、功能、语用；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系同义、反义、下义；句子语义关系。 第九章 语言变化 语言的开展变化词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化； 第十章语言、思维及文化 语言及文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言及思维的关系；语言及文化的关系；中西文化的异同。 第十一章语用学 语用学的定义；语义学及语用学的区别；语境及意义；言语行为理论言内行为、言外行为和言后行为；合作原那么。 1. 语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层构造duality 既由声音和意义构造多产性productivity移位

4、性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission 2。语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人济功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive应酬功能：Phatic娱乐功能recreatinal元语言功能 metalingual3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学 phonology形态学 Morphology句法学 syntax语义学 semantics语用学 pragmatics4. 现代构造主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand

5、de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言及言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语那么只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力及语言运用competence and performance1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:a. we can easily teach our childr

6、en to learn a certain languageb. we can use both shu and tree to describe the same thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before. 2.What is the most important function of language?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informatived.

7、metallingual3.The function of the sentence A nice day, isnt it ?is _a informative b. phaticc. directive d. performative4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by _a saussureb. hallidayc. chomskyd. the prague school5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parol

8、e?a. saussureb. chomsky c. hallidayd anomymous第二节 语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成 2.辅音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音 complete obstruction鼻音 nasals破裂音 plosives局部阻塞辅音 partial obstruction擦音 fricatives破擦音 affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音

9、的送气特征 aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6双元音 diphthongs,有元音过渡 vowel glides1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies _.a. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb. the perception of soundsc. the combination of soundsd. the production of sounds 2. The distinction between vowel s and

10、consonants lies in _a. the place of articulation b.the obstruction f airstreamc. the position of the tongued. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta. voicelessb. spreadc.voicedd.nasal4. What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a. vo

11、icingb. aspirationc.roundnessd. nasality5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?a. voicing b.nasalc. approximationd. aspiration6.The phonological features of the consonant k are _a. voiced stopb. voiceless stopc. voiced fricatived. voiceless fricative7.p is divverent from k

12、in _a. the manner of articulationb. the shape of the lipsc. the vibration of the vocal cordsd.the palce of articualtion8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in _a. aspirationb.nasalityc. obstructiond. voicing第三节 音位学 phonology1.音位学及语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学那么强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以

13、用来组合成词句的那些语音。 2.音位phoneme：最小语音单位3.音位变体allophones:读音差异4.比照性分布：如果两个音段出现在同一个语音环境中，而且产生了两个不同的单词，5.互补性分布；如果两个根本相似的音段绝不会出现在一样的语音环境中，那么它们之间就是互补性分布的关系，如送气p绝不会出现在s之后，不送气的p绝不会出现在词首6.音节syllable，分为节首onset，节峰peak，节尾coda7.辅音群:一般作为音节节首的辅音群不能超过三个福音，节尾不能超过4个8.最小语音对minimal pairsI. Introduction1. What is LanguageLangu

14、age is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. What is Linguistics(语言学)Linguistics is the scientific study of language.3.Some Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics3.1 Speech and WritingOne general principle(原那么) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing

15、. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.3.2 Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for correct behavior.3.3 Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时

16、) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.3.4 Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔early last century. langue refers to t

17、he abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue. 3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language users knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual rea

18、lization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).4. The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole. Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription

19、. Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is

20、the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language. Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language

21、and the mind.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurol

22、ogical basis of language development and use in human beings.Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts

23、are applied, often with the aid of a computer.II. Phonetics(语音学1. scope of phoneticsSpeech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics:Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal org

24、ans are involved and how they coordinate(协调 in the process.Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节 by the ear, the auditory nerve(神经 and the brain.Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学 we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted传

25、送 between mouth and ear.2. The vocal organsThe vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,(气流发生器官 the producer of voice声音发生器官 and the resonating cavities.声音共振器官3. Consonants(辅音Places of articulation(发音部位: bilabial,(双唇 Labiodentals,唇齿 dental,齿 alveolar,齿龈

26、 retroflex,卷舌 palate-alveolar,上齿龈palatal,上颚 velar,软腭 uvular,小舌 glottal(声门Manners of articulation: plosive,暴破 nasal,鼻音 trill,颤音lateral,边音 fricative,摩擦 approximant,近似音 affricate破擦4. Vowels (元音The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part

27、of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)III. Phonology音韵学1. phonemes(音素：a distinctive(有区别的 sound in a language.2. Allophones(音位变体：The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme.3. Minimal pairs(最小对立体： word forms which differ from each other o

28、nly by one sound.4. Free variation (自由变异：If two sounds occurring in the same environment(环境, they does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word.5. Complementary distribution(补充分类：Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds

29、never occur in the same environment.6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位：the study of phonological properties(性质 of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable(音节，stress,重音 word stress, sentence stress. pitch 音调and intonation语调.IV. Morphology词法1. inflection(构形法：the grammatical relationships

30、through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折词缀2. Word-formation(构词：the processes(过程 of word variations signaling lexical relationships.说明词法关系 They are compound(合成and derivation (派生.3. Morpheme(词素： the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content.4. Allomorph(同质异象变体： some

31、 morphemes have considerable variation, for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms.5. Types of morphemes: They are roots,(词根 affix词缀 and stem词干.6. Lexicon(语言词汇：in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary.7. Closed-class words(封闭性 and open-class words(开放性：the former whose membershi

32、p is fixed or limited and the latter whose membership is in principle(实际上 indefinite or unlimited.8. Word class(词性：It displays a wider range of more precisely defined classes.9. Lexeme(词位：the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units.10. Idi

33、om(习语，成语：Most phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true for a sequence of words(词序 which is semantically语义上 and often syntactically(句法上 restricted.限制11. Collocation(搭配： the habitual(习惯的 co-occurrences 同时出现of individual lexical items.V. Syntax (句法1. Positional relation or word order词序：the seq

34、uential(顺序arrangement of words in a language.2. Construction or constituent (句子构造： the overall process of internal (内部organization of a grammatical unit .3. Syntactic function(句法功能： the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. The names of

35、 functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers,(修饰语 complements补语, etc.4. Category(范畴：It refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. The categories of the noun include number, gender, case and

36、 countability.5. Phrase: a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause.6. Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence.7. Sentence: It is the minimum part of language t

37、hat expresses a complete thought.VI. Semantics1. Conceptualism or mentalism (概念主义：Following F. De Saussure(索学尔s sign theory, the linguistic sign is said to consist of a signifier 所指and signified被指, i.e., a sound image and a concept, liked by a psychological心理的 associative bond.相关联系2. Mechanism(机械主义：

38、Some linguists, Bloomfield,(布鲁费尔德 for example, turned to science to counter反-act the precious theories and this leads to what call the mechanistic approach方法. The nature of this theory has nothing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena.智力现象3. Contextualism 语境主义：It is based on the presum

39、ption(假定that one can derive meaning from or reduce it to observable context.4. Behaviorism (行为主义：Behaviorists attempt to define (定义the meaning of a language form as the situation(情景 in which the speaker utters说话 it and the response反响 it calls forth in the hearer.5. functionalism (功能主义：functionalists

40、 as represented (代表by the Prague school布拉格学派 linguists and neo-Firthian 新弗斯linguists, approach the problem from an entirely new orientation方法. They argue争辩 that meaning could only be interpreted解释 from its use or function in social life.6. Sense relationships: While reference deals with the relation

41、ship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc., and the non-linguistic world of experience, sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves. They include synonymy(同义词, antonym(反义词,hyponymy(下层次Polysemy(一词多义and Homonymy (同音异义词7. S

42、emantic analysis: It includes 1) componential成分 analysis which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.(意义成分2) predication (表述analysis in which the meaning of a sentence is not merely the sum of the meanings of the words which compose it. 3) relational components in

43、which the semantic analysis of some words presents a complicated picture, because they show relations between two and perhaps more terms. VII. Language variation (语言变化1. Lexical change(词汇的变化：changes in lexis.2. Invention: (新造词new entities.3. Compounding合成词New words are sometimes constructed by combi

44、ning two old words.4. Blending: (混合词：It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the initial parts of the two roots.5. Abbreviation or clipping:(缩写A new word is creat

45、ed by cutting the final part or cutting the initial part.6. acronym:(取首字母的缩写词It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified (修饰 headword.7. metanalysis:(再分化It refers to a process through which a division is made where there were note before.8. Back-

46、formation:(逆构词 It refers to an abnormal(非正常 type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting(去掉 an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language. 9. Analogical creation:(类比造词It can account for说明 the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjug

47、ation(结合 of some English verbs.10. Borrowing借用：English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.11. Phonological change(音变：It is related to language variation in the phonological system of language. It includes loss,(省音 addition,加音 assimilation, 同化dissimilation.异化12. Grammatical change: Changes in both morphology词法 and syntax句法are listed under this heading.13. Semantic change:(语义变化It includes