自考-现代语言学-每章要点总结.doc

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1、第一章 绪论 1/ What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？ Linguisticsis generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 2/ The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴 The study of language as a whole is often calledgeneral linguistics. (普通语言学) The study of

2、 sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is calledphonetics. （语音学） The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is calledphonology. （音系学） The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are calledmorphology. （形态学） The study of how morphemes and wo

3、rds are combined to form sentences is calledsyntax. （句法学） The study of meaning in language is calledsemantics. （语义学） The study of meaning in context of use is calledpragmatics. （语用学） The study of language with reference to society is calledsocio-linguistics. （社会语言学） The study of language with refere

4、nce to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学） The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known asapplied linguistics. （应用语言学） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teac

5、hing and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language. Other related branches includeanthropological linguistics, （人类语言学）neurological linguistics, （神经语言学）mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）andcomputational linguistics. （计算机语言学） 3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学研究中的几

6、对基本概念 Prescriptive and descriptive 描写与规定 If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to bedescriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to beprescriptive. Modern linguistics differs

7、 from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not. Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时 The description of a language at some point in time

8、is asynchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is adiachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important. Speech and writing 口头语与书面语 Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of langua

9、ge as primary, but not the written form. Reasons: l 1. Speech precedes writing; l 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; l 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than t

10、he written.Langue and parole prul 语言和言语 The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20thcentury. Languerefers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, andparolerefers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saus

11、sure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics. 语言能力和语言运用 Competenc

12、e and performance Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s. He definescompetenceas the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, andperformancethe actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and sp

13、ecify the language rules. 4/ What is language? 语言的定义 Languageis a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Sapir,Edward uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution. Chomskys definition is quite differ

14、ent, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view. 5/ Design features 语言的甄别性特征 Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal syst

15、em of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features. 1) Arbitrariness 任意性（和约定俗成性） It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word dog and the animal it refers to. The fact

16、that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages and that the same sound may be used to refer to different objects is another good example. Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. Some words, such as the words created in the imitation

17、of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 2) Productivity 能产性 Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of an infinitely lar

18、ge number of sentences, including those that they have never said or heard before. 3) Duality 结构二重性 It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic le

19、vel, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. 4) Displacement 语言的移位性（突破时空性） It means that

20、language can be used to talk about what happened in the past, what is happening now, or what will happen in the future. Language can also be used to talk about our real word experiences or the experiences in our imaginary world. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from

21、the immediate situations of the speaker. 5) Cultural transmission 文化传播性 While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. *Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学 1.The phonic medium of language 语言的声音媒

22、介 Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. For

23、 linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing. The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sound

24、s （语音）. 2What is phonetics? 什么是语音学？ Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages. 语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。 three branches of phonetics Articulatory phonetics （发音语音学）, it studies the speech sounds from

25、 the speakers point of view. It studies how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学），it studies the speech sounds from the hearers point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by he hearer. Acoustic phonetics（声学语音学），it studies the speech sounds

26、by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another. aio3.Organs of speech 发音器官 The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 the throat The oral cavity 口腔 the mouth The nasal cavity 鼻腔 the nose 语音解剖图发音器官图 4.Orthographic represent

27、ation of speech sounds broad and narrow transcriptions 语音的书写形式宽式和窄式音标 IPA-International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标 There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. One is the transcription with letter-symbols (字母符号) only, called broad transcription (宽式音标). The other is the transcription with letter-symbo

28、ls together with the diacritics (变音符号), called narrow transcription (窄式音标). p音的比较 对pit/spit中p音的比较： pit中的p是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：phit spit中的p是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：spit l音的比较 对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较： Leaf中l 在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：li:f Feel中l出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号 Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号

29、 Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音l，在窄式音标中加变音符号II 5.Classification of English speech sounds 英语语音的分类 Consonants Vowelsa)Classification of English consonants 按发音方式分 Stop or plosive 塞音或爆破音: p b t d k g Fricative 擦音：f v s z W T s V h Affricate 塞擦音：tFdV Liquid流音：l r Nasal鼻音：m n N Glide滑音：w j a)Classification of Eng

30、lish consonants 按发音部位分 Bilabial双唇音：p b m w Labiodental唇齿音：f v Dental齿音：W T Alveolar齿龈音：t d s z n l r Palatal硬腭音：VtFdVi Velar软腭音：k g N Glottal声门音：h B) Classification of English vowels 按舌头在口中的位置分： Front vowel前元音：i: i e A a Central vowel中元音：: Q Back vowel后元音：u: u R: R a: B) Classification of English vo

31、wels 按口形的大小分： Close vowel闭元音：i: i u: u Semi-close vowel半闭元音：e : Open vowel开元音：A a Semi-open vowel半开元音： R: Q R a: B) Classification of English vowels 按唇形是否为圆分 Unrounded vowel不圆唇元音：i: i e A a : Q a: rounded vowel圆唇元音：u: u R: R B) Classification of English vowels 按语音的长短分 Long vowel长元音i: :a: u: R: Short

32、 vowel短元音i e A a Q u R6.Phonology音系学 Phonology and phonetics 音系学和语音学 Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds. Phonetics is of a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular lan

33、guage, it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Thus these two are at once related and distinct branches of linguistic studies. 7.Phone, phoneme, and allophone 语音（音素）、音位、音位变体 Phone Phone can be simp

34、ly defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning. 语音是语言学研究的单位，是一个个具体的声音。语音是一个语音单位或一个切分成分，它并不一定能区分意义。 Phonology Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in

35、 phonology is called phoneme, it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. A phoneme is not a sound, it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. 音位是音系学研究的单位，是抽象的概念，每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合体，音位具有区别意义的作用。一个音位在语音上被具体体现为一个特定的语音（音素）。按照惯例，音位被置于两斜线之间，如/p/ /t/，而语音被置于方括号内，如p t. allo

36、phones The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. 音位变体是一个音位在特定的语音环境里的具体体现，同一个音位在不同的语音环境里体现为不同的变体，也就是语音。 8.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair 音位对立、互补分布、最小对立对 Phonetically similar sounds

37、might be related in two ways. They might form a contrast if they are two distinctive phonemes, or they do not form a contrast in meaning if they are allophones of the same phoneme. 相似的语音之间可能有两种关系。两个相似的语音如果是两个区别性音位，它们在意义上形成对立，如果是同一音位的变体，在意思上不形成对立。 phonemic contrast The former（ they are two distinctiv

38、e phonemes ） is called phonemic contrast, they can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning. 音位对立是指不同音位之间的关系，它们可以出现在不同的语音组合的同一位置，产生意义差别，如rope和robe中的/p/和/b/。 complementary distribution The latter（ they do not form a contrast in meaning ） is called complementary distribution; they a

39、re two allophones of the same phoneme. They only occur in different environments. 互补分布是指音位变体之间的关系，同一个音位的不同变体在语音组合中永远不会出现在相同的位置上，它们没有区别意义的作用，如top中的送气的p和stop中不送气的p。 The way A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another one results in a change of me

40、aning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs. 确定一种语言的音位的一个基本途径是，看如果用一个语音代替另一个是否会产生不同的意义。如果产生了，那么这两个语音就代表不同的音位。为此，一个简单的办法就是找出最小对立对。 a minimal pair When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segme

41、nt which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 最小对立对是指除了出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合，如pen和ben。 9.Some rules in phonology 几条音系规则 A) sequential rules 系列规则 The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rule

42、s. 在一种特定的语言中，语音的组合是受规则制约的，这些规则叫做系列规则。 重要的规则： I. 如果单词以l 或r 为首，其后的一个语音必定为元音，如rude, last, leap II. 如果三个辅音同时出现在单词词首，则：第一音位必定为/s/，第二音位必定是/p/t/k/，第三音位必定是/l/r/w/，如strict, splendid, spring III. 塞擦音tdv和咝音s z F V 后不能紧跟另一个咝音，如teach变复数为teachesti:tiz。 IV.制约音位模式的规则是随语言的不同而不同的，英语中适用，其它语言却不适用。 B)assimilation rules

43、同化规则 The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 同化规则即通过“模仿”一个系列音位的一个特征使一个语音与另一个语音相似，从而使两个音素变得相似。 重要的规则： I. 元音后紧跟一个鼻音时，该元音要鼻音话。如bean/ green 中的i:音。 II.在一个单词中，鼻音n所处的发音部位和紧随其后的辅音的发音部位变得一样。如correct incorrect。

44、III.语音同化规则也体现在有关单词的拼写中。如possible的否定形式是impossible，是因为n音同化成了m音。 C)deletion rules 省略规则 The rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. 省略规则告诉我们什么时候一个语音尽管在拼写中存在，但在发音中却省略了。 重要的规则： 如g音出现在位于词尾的一个鼻辅音前时要省略。如sign中的g音不发音。而在加了后缀的signature中，g却要发音的。 10.Suprasegmental f

45、eatures- stress, tone, intonation 超切分特征：重音、声调和语调 Distinctive features can also be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, into

46、nation, and tone. 区别性特征也可以在由两个或多个音位切分成分所组成的系列中体现出来。出现在切分层面之上的音系特征叫做超切分特征。它们时音节、单词和句子等语言单位的音系特征。主要的超切分特征包括重音、音调和语调。 A) Stress 重音 重要的规则： I. 一个单词如果既可以作名词，又可以作动词，则名词重音在第一个音节上，相应的动词重音则在第二个音节上。如import。 II. 英语复合词的重音常在第一个成分上，第二个成分是次重音。如hotdog。 B) Tone 声调 汉语的声调C) Intonation 语调 When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rathe